Immigrants In Chicago Research Articles

Mixed methods approach to understanding COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among immigrants in the Chicago

BackgroundCOVID-19 vaccine hesitancy has been particularly high among immigrant populations, whose experience is shaped by a history of racism and discriminations, and distrust of the healthcare system. In this study we draw from the Theory of Planned Behavior to examine COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy among immigrants in Chicago. MethodsA mixed-methods approach comprising of both focus groups and a health survey was conducted from February to August 2022. Five focus groups were held (N = 35) among Black, Asian and Arab/Palestine participants to understand attitudes and beliefs around the COVID-19 vaccine. Focus groups were analyzed using a modified template approach to text analysis. Based on these findings and themes, we developed a survey that was conducted among 413 immigrants from the mentioned communities. We used hierarchical ordinal regression analyses to examine the relationship between COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy and vaccination status. ResultsQualitative analysis suggest that the major factors influencing COVID-19 vaccine hesitancy included fear of adverse reactions, misinformation around COVID-19 and the vaccine, negative social norms around vaccination, and external pressure to get vaccinated. From our quantitative analysis we found that 24% of participants were unvaccinated, 5% were partially vaccinated, 32.3% were vaccinated but not boosted, and 39% were vaccinated and boosted for COVID-19. Hierarchical regression models suggest that immigrants who hold negative attitudes and social norms around the COVID-19 vaccine are less likely to vaccinate. ConclusionsUnderstanding vaccine hesitancy among immigrants allows for the creation of culturally and linguistically tailored education that can be utilized to increase vaccine confidence and uptake.

Ethnic enclaves, social capital, and psychological well-being of immigrants: the case of Chinese older immigrants in Chicago

Objectives: Using a large sample of Chinese older immigrants in Chicago, this study asked two questions: (1) Is living in Chinatown associated with better psychological well-being? (2) What is the role of social capital in such an association? Methods: Data were derived from the Population Study of Chinese Elderly in Chicago (N = 3,105). Depression and quality of life (QoL) were compared between those who lived in Chinatown and those who didn’t. Negative binomial regressions (for depression) and logistic regressions (for QoL) were performed to examine the associations between Chinatown residence, social capital, and the two outcomes. Results: Net of social capital and the control variables, living in Chinatown was marginally associated with fewer depressive symptoms (β= −.137, p = .057), but a significantly lower likelihood of reporting good QoL (OR = .797, CI: .661–.962). Although various forms of social capital were projective of positive psychological well-being, given the overall low social capital of the Chinatown residents, they heightened the mental health risks of this population. Conclusion: The neighborhood context may function to reproduce social disadvantage among aging immigrant populations. The findings point to the importance of intervention at the mezzo level to improve the psychological wellbeing of this population.

An Interethnic Paradox: Chicago's Irish and Everyone Else

An Interethnic Paradox: Chicago's Irish and Everyone Else

Cultural attributes of suicidal ideation among older immigrants: a qualitative study

BackgroundSuicide is a large and growing public health problem. Little is known about the attributes of suicidal ideation (SI) in the contexts of immigration. This qualitative study aims to explore immigration- and acculturation-related attributes of SI among older immigrants.MethodsA qualitative semi-structured interview design. Interview were conducted with 57 older Chinese immigrants in Chicago with self-reported SI in the past month.ResultsIn addition to attributes of SI which have been well documented in the literature, we identified immigration- and acculturation-related attributes, including linguistic and cultural barriers of being integrated to the receiving communities, acculturation gaps in intergenerational support, and uselessness.ConclusionsFindings of the study highlight the intersectionality of race, culture, and aging regarding SI, which are essential to improve recognition and understanding of SI among immigrant populations.

Sources of Intergenerational Conflict in Chinese Immigrant Families in the United States.

Studies of family relations have not kept pace with the acceleration of international migration. To address this gap, this study relied on a survey of 545 Chinese immigrants in Chicago who reported information of 869 older parents to examine the sources of intergenerational conflict in five domains: norms/values, relationship itself, money, health, and parenting. The results of logistic regression showed that maintaining one's traditional culture, in the form of endorsing a sense of filial obligation, was a significant protective factor against all types of conflict. Immigrants with a higher level of acculturation were more likely to report conflict regarding norms/values and relationship itself, but not more so regarding practical issues such as health, money, and parenting. Helping parents with ADLs, not IADLs, was associated with more conflict regarding monetary and health issues. Immigrants' greater sense of mastery was associated with a lower chance of reporting norm/value-related intergenerational conflict.

Coping repertoires and psychological well-being of Chinese older immigrants in the United States

Objectives This study examines (1) the overall structures of multifaceted coping resources, that is, coping repertoires, among Chinese older immigrants in the United States, (2) the optimal coping repertoire that is associated with best psychological outcomes of these older immigrants, and (3) the most effective coping repertoire in different adversities. Method Using data from 2,923 Chinese older immigrants in Chicago, Latent Class Analysis (LCA) was performed to identify the overall coping repertoires of U.S. Chinese older adults. Negative binomial and logistic regressions were used to examine associations between coping repertoires and depression and Quality of Life (QoL), respectively. We further tested whether coping repertories moderate the relationships between adversities in health, economic, and social domains, and the two psychological outcomes. Results LCA revealed four types of coping repertories: low-resource (43%), spouse-oriented (32%), community-oriented (15%), and multi-source coping (10%). Overall, Chinese older immigrants who had the multi-source coping repertoire reported the best psychological outcomes. The community-oriented and multi-source coping repertories had significantly stronger buffering effects on psychological well-being among individuals with IADL difficulties or low acculturation. However, spouse-oriented coping intensified the association between ADL difficulties and depression, and community-oriented coping intensified the association between poorer subjective health and lower quality of life. Conclusion This study revealed overall low coping repertories of Chinese older immigrants, suggesting the most optimal coping repertories should consist of both intrinsic and extrinsic coping sources. The findings further show that relying on limited sources might be harmful to older immigrants’ mental health.

Adversity, Coping Repertoire, and Psychological Well-Being of Chinese Older Immigrants in the United States

Using data from 2,923 Chinese older immigrants in Chicago, this study aims to identify different patterns of coping repertoires of older immigrants, based on a combination of individual, family and community coping resources, and the optimal coping repertoire that is associated with the best psychological outcomes. The results of Latent Class Analysis revealed four types of coping repertoires: low-resource (43%), spouse-oriented (32%), community-oriented (15%), and multi-source coping repertoire (10%). Overall, immigrants who had multi-source coping repertoire reported the best psychological outcomes. However, the influence of coping repertoires varied based on specific adversities. Having community-oriented coping repertoire was more protective for widowed immigrants, whereas spouse- or community-oriented coping repertoire was more protective for those with poor health. For less-acculturated older immigrants, having community-oriented coping appears most beneficial to their well-being; and for older immigrants who perceived low filial support from their children, having multi-source coping was associated with better psychological well-being.

Parasitic infections represent a significant health threat among recent immigrants in Chicago

Parasitic infections are likely under-recognized among immigrant populations in the USA. We conducted a cross-sectional study to evaluate if such infections have health impacts among recent immigrants in Chicago and to identify predictive factors for parasitic infections. A total of 133 recent immigrants were enrolled, filling out a standardized medical questionnaire and providing blood and stool samples. Appriximately 12% of subjects (15/125) who provided a blood or stool sample for testing were found to have evidence of current or prior infection with a pathogenic parasite, of which Toxocara spp. (8 subjects, 6.4%) and Strongyloides stercoralis (5 subjects, 4%) were most commonly identified. Parasitic infection was more likely among subjects who had immigrated within the previous 2 years and those with a self-reported history of worms in the stool. The most useful surrogate markers identified for parasitic infections were an elevated immunoglobulin E level (seen in 46.7% (7/15) of subjects with parasitic infections and 20% (22/110) of uninfected individuals, p = 0.04) and the presence of Blastocystis hominis cysts on Ova & Parasite exam (detected in 38.5% (5/13) of subjects with parasitic infections who provided a stool sample and 5.1% (5/98) of uninfected subjects, p = 0.002). Our study found that parasitic infections may be common in recent US immigrants, which highlights an important health disparity among a vulnerable population that merits further study. Additionally, clinical risk factors, symptoms, and laboratory findings traditionally thought to be associated with parasites were commonly found but not predictive of infection in this study population.

Economic Sector Employment, Human Capital, and Poverty among Mexican Immigrants in Chicago

ABSTRACTThis study analyzes connections between poverty and economic sector of employment in relation to Human Capital Theory among Mexican immigrants in Chicago and Cook County. The results show the likelihood of poverty among Mexican immigrants varies across sectors of employment, with those in the service sector likeliest to fall into poverty, and those employed in construction least likely. Immigration status as well as English proficiency are the most salient determinants of the probability of being poor. Mexican immigrants with citizenship or legal residency status, work permits, and high or medium English proficiency have a lower probability to be poor than their counterparts.

TRANSITION IN FAMILY RELATIONS IN IMMIGRANT FAMILIES: THE CASE OF CHINESE OLDER IMMIGRANTS IN THE UNITED STATES

Using panel data of 2,604 Chinese older immigrants in Chicago over a two-year period, this study examined continuity and changes in intergenerational relationship patterns and their mental health implications. Latent transition analysis revealed five types of family relations: traditional, modified traditional, coresiding-unobligated, independent, and detached. Over the two years, about 43% of the respondents shifted to a different relationship type, with the most common changes being shifting into modified traditional or independent relations, or from detached relations. Controlling for baseline socio-demographic, acculturation, mental health variables, and variables representing life transitions over time, having detached relations was related to greater depressive symptoms in two years and having modified traditional relations was associated with better quality of life at the follow up. The findings revealed heterogeneity and fluidity of intergenerational relations among older immigrant populations and point to the important role of family relations in their well-being.

The Enduring Presence of Latinos in the Midwest

The Enduring Presence of Latinos in the Midwest Elizabeth Coonrod Martínez Our previous issue, Diálogo 20:2, related a history of the rise of Latino-focused journals since the mid-twentieth century, examining avenues they opened for research and creative work, and the impact they had on today's scholarship. Chicago and the greater Midwest, for example, was an important originating point for Puerto Rican, Black, and Chicano-oriented academic journals, for incipient publishing by Chicana writers, and where the first Latina feminist journal, Third Woman, was born. Diálogo 21:1 delves into intricate histories of the Midwest, through the experiences and contributions of U.S. Latinos since the previous turn of century. These histories and continuing communities—seldom readily visible to a European origin–centric society—are meticulously described, providing enlightening perspectives for future studies. This theme was conceived and directed by professors at the Julián Samora Research Institute (JSRI) at Michigan State University: the long-term director, Dr. Rubén Martínez, and current postdoctoral scholar, Dr. Juan Coronado. Since its founding, nearly three decades ago, the JSRI has represented an important institute for Midwest research. Named for the pioneering Mexican American sociologist and research scholar, who also helped found the precursor to the National Council of La Raza (NCLR), Samora's vision continues in initiatives and research accomplished by the JSRI in areas of Latino education, community and health outreach projects, labor, families, and youth. Dr. Martínez and Dr. Coronado's own research article, with excerpts from an oral histories project spearheaded by the JSRI, demonstrates examples and examines the great success of Latino entrepreneurship in Michigan as well as the impact of racial discrimination and intragroup relations. The in-depth articles of two contributors relate early twentieth-century history in Kansas City, as it grew into an extensive metropolitan area, and in St. Louis, the "gateway to the West," each including insights on the type of work done by mostly Mexican heritage Latinos. Other articles reveal the unique patterns of Mexican enclaves, labor, social issues, and community building in diverse areas of Chicago: patterns of inequality throughout suburban neighborhoods; the educational experiences of first-generation Mexican American immigrants in Chicago; and an article describing the historic Pilsen neighborhood through the work of long-term artist Diana Solís and the creation of safe spaces for queer feminists. Each of these studies demonstrates how Latinos helped build the structures of present-day cities, from their labor and entrepreneurship to projects in community revitalization, artistic visions, and a focus on social and community enhancement projects. The research articles are complemented by reflections and creative work. One book review offers perspectives on meatpacking plants in the Great Plains states, and work done by Maya-heritage immigrants, through their own oral histories; another brings attention to a recently published "Midwest reader," defining histories and activities in several states; each book would easily serve university courses. And a reflection article portrays memories of growing up in rural Nebraska in the mid-twentieth century. It has been a great pleasure to evaluate the rich material submitted in response to our call on issues for and about Latinos in the Midwest and to work with each contributor. An interview is included with one of the authors of A Midwest Reader, a book which states that during the first decade of the twenty-first century, Latino population increased by more than 73% across eight Midwestern states. But that surge alone doesn't exemplify early contributions and residents. Latinos have always been in the Midwest, but their histories have been invisible, and previously not all populations have been counted. Interestingly, 12 years ago, Diálogo v9 (in its earlier, annual format and publication) also chose to focus on the Midwest, and the topics for articles were somewhat similar, reflecting on language use and Chicago neighborhoods (Pilsen and Humboldt), multicultural [End Page 1] art, the custom of quinceañera celebrations, the illusion of Latino "inclusion," lesbian identity, and educational issues. In this issue, however, research studies delve deeper into Midwestern Latino roots, and the articles reveal important originating histories and longstanding civic, labor, and social contributions. At the same time, actions...

High Prevalence of Parasitic Infections Among Recent Immigrants in Chicago

High Prevalence of Parasitic Infections Among Recent Immigrants in Chicago

Frostbite and chilblains in Upton Sinclair's The Jungle.

InThe Jungle, authorUptonSinclair uses cold exposure injuries to illustrate exploitation of America’s laboring classes by ruthlessly venal industrialists during theearly 20thcentury. In thebook,working-class immigrants inChicago’smeatpacking industrysuffervaryingdegreesofcold injuryasaconsequenceofhostileworkingconditions. Injuries rangefrom milder forms, including frostnip (superficial, local paresthesias without tissue destruction), chilblains (painful edematous erythematous lesionsdue toacuteor repetitiveexposure tonear-freezingcold), tomore serious conditions, such as frostbite (tissue destruction).

Colorectal Cancer Screening among Chinese, Cambodian, and Vietnamese Immigrants in Chicago.

Asian Americans are now the most rapidly growing minority group in the USA. Over 60 % of Asian Americans in the USA are immigrants. Cancer has been the leading cause of death among Asian Americans since 1980. Understanding the barriers to screening is essential to reduce the unnecessary burden of cancer. Little is known about colorectal cancer screening behavior among foreign-born Asian Americans and how socio-demographic factors may influence the behavior. Even less is known about disaggregated Asian subgroups. Using data from the Chicago Asian Community Survey, a local health assessment survey of three Asian subgroups in Chicago, Chinese, Cambodian, and Vietnamese, this study found that the colorectal cancer screening rate were much lower among foreign-born Asian Americans in Chicago (30 %) than the national rate for the general population (59 %). Furthermore, we studied disaggregated data to determine colorectal cancer screening differences between communities. Findings from this study provide a critical evidence base to inform future research and intervention designs.

Life Stage Influences on U.S. South Asian Women's Physical Activity

South Asian (SA) women in the United States report extremely low rates of leisure time physical activity (PA) compared with women in other ethnic minority groups. This study explored SA women's perspectives on PA during different life stages. This is a community-based participatory research study that used focus groups. The study setting was a community-based organization that provides social services to SA immigrants in Chicago, Illinois. The study team conducted six focus groups (in English and Hindi) with 42 SA women, ages 18 to 71 years. A semistructured interview guide was used to foster discussion about perceptions of, barriers to/facilitators of, and suggestions for PA programs. Discussions were transcribed and independently coded by two reviewers using thematic content analysis and guided by a coding scheme that was developed a priori. Participants said that different life stages strongly influenced their PA. PA decreased after marriage and having children. Chronic diseases constrained older women from more vigorous PA. Barriers to PA among younger women were family disapproval and perceptions that PA is unnecessary if you are "skinny." Women agreed that PA is not a priority within the culture, and that interventions must take into account cultural, religious, and family context. Sociocultural norms, family constraints, and lack of awareness about the benefits of PA strongly influenced PA among SA women. Culturally salient intervention strategies might include programs in trusted community settings where women can exercise in women-only classes with their children, and targeted education campaigns to increase awareness about the benefits of PA across life stages.

Abstract B90: Researching the perception of risk about colorectal cancer among African immigrants in the Chicago metropolitan area: A preliminary study

Abstract Objectives: There has been a strong presence of African immigrants in Chicago, especially since 1996. According to an assessment by United African Organization (UAO), a major hub to provide social services for African Americans in the Chicago area, more than 70 percent of these immigrants arrived between the years of 1996 and 2008. Colorectal cancer affects every 62 of 100,000 African Americans according to CDC, and is the third leading cause of cancer death in America according to the American Cancer Society. Yet, there is no such data to study how the disease affects African immigrants, or an educational blueprint to create awareness to the health risk among African immigrants. The purpose of this study is to document colorectal cancer baseline data among African immigrants in Illinois in an effort to identify some of the barriers, risks and screening behaviors that exposes the priority population to colorectal cancer. Methods: This study was based on a convenience sample of 68 participants response to quantitative survey tool, which was administered over the course of three months at a church that served the congregation in Chicago, and three semi-structured interviews of community leaders from United African Organization, Ghana National Council and ACUMC to document baseline data and to serve as a guideline to designing the survey. Demographic questions such as age, family income, place of birth, marital status etc, was asked to assess demographic status. Other questions such as overall health rating, insurance coverage, having a primary physician, most recent visit to the doctor etc were also asked to understand the priority population's utilization of the healthcare system upon immigrating to America. Furthermore, questions regarding risk and overall health ratings, knowledge of colorectal, breast and lung cancers etc were asked as a step to understanding the priority population's perceived risk of colorectal cancer compared to other popularly known cancers and how they may be at risk of colorectal cancer in particular. Results: Majority of the participants (n = 66) were born in Africa and even though majority of participants also reported to having completed college in their respective African countries (45.2%), majority earned only between $25,000 and $50,000 (35.5%). Despite reports of low earnings, majority reported having some health insurance (58.1%), majority of the sample had been living in the United States for at least 20 years (38.7%), and believed they are at no risk of colorectal cancer (32.3%). Analysis suggested that 67.7% of the participants either heard about colorectal cancer from a doctor visit or in the news. Majority (78%) of the participants who had lived in the U.S. for more than 10 years had heard about CRC. Moreover, Nearly 41% of the participants believed that they had zero risk of CRC on a 0 (no risk at all) to 10 (extremely high risk) scale. The other 38.3% considered themselves with very low risk, 1 or 2 on the 10-point scale. Results from data analysis suggest income, among other factors plays a significant role in the priority population's knowledge of colorectal cancer (p = 0.011). Conclusion: Although there was a small sample of people surveyed, results suggest the potential many members of the priority population believe they are at no risk of colorectal cancer. However, the literature point to western diets as the main risk of colorectal cancer for African immigrants. Data collected allowed for the creation of an educational brochure that seeks to educate the priority population and create awareness in an effort to promote screening for colorectal cancer. Citation Format: Yaw Amofa Peprah, Karen E. Kim, Helen Lam. Researching the perception of risk about colorectal cancer among African immigrants in the Chicago metropolitan area: A preliminary study. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Sixth AACR Conference: The Science of Cancer Health Disparities; Dec 6–9, 2013; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014;23(11 Suppl):Abstract nr B90. doi:10.1158/1538-7755.DISP13-B90

Abstract B73: Cervical cancer screening among Asian immigrants in Chicago

Abstract Objectives: The challenge to elimination racial/ethnic cancer disparities will remain at the forefront as the population of the U.S. continues to grow increasingly diverse. More important, not only will the population of the U.S. be increasing diversely, but the diversity will be substantially composed of recent immigrants and new generations. The 2010 American Community Survey shows 13.9 million individuals arrived at the U.S. between 2000 and 2010. The interaction between immigration and cancer disparities is complex; however, progress in this area is an important component to eliminate racial/ethnic cancer disparities. The purposes of this study were to 1) explore cervical cancer screening among Asian immigrants; and 2) examine how socio-economic characteristics may impact screening behaviors. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study using data collected from the Chicago Asian Community Survey (CACS). Participants were recruited from three Asian communities, Chinese, Cambodian and Vietnamese, using a three-stage random sampling of the Chinese community and Respondent Driven Sampling (RDS) of the Cambodian and Vietnamese communities. The CACS consisted of face-to-face interviews and was conducted following cultural and language-specific survey guidelines. The survey questionnaire was developed from several validated national health surveys, including the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention's Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (BRFSS), National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), and the National Health Interview Survey (NHIS). Female participants were asked whether they have ever had cervical cancer screening before and when they were last screened. Results: A total of 783 participants completed the survey, and 433 met the gender and foreign-born criteria. Nearly 79% of these women had health insurance, and 86% reported having a regular place for health care. About 31% had high school or above education, but only 13% reported speaking well English. Half of these women were married, and 60% lived in a household with family annual income less than $20,000. Sixty percent (n = 260) reported having cervical cancer screening in the past and 44% (n = 190) were screened within the last two years. Socio-economic characteristics (health insurance coverage, a regular place for health care, English proficiency, education level, marital status, family income, employment status, age and years in the U.S.) together accounted for 10% to 14% of the variance for being screened before. Having health insurance coverage (OR = 3.84, 95% CI 1.87-7.85) and being married (OR= 2.07, 95% CI 1.24-3.41) had significant impacts on being screened before. Older women were less likely to report having screened before (OR= .97, 95%CI 0.95-0.99). Socio-economic characteristics also accounted for 19% to 26% of the variance for being screened within two years. Participants who had a regular place for health care were 5.4 times likely to have screened within 2 years (95% CI 1.83-15.93) than those who didn't. Older women and women in the U.S. longer were less likely to have screened within two years (OR = .95, 95% CI .92-.98 and OR = .96, 95% CI .92 - .97 respectively). Conclusion: For Asian immigrants, access to care (having insurance coverage and having a regular place for health care) has a significant impact on being screened in the past and being up-to-date. Older women, who might be sexually inactive, were less likely being screened before and being up-to-date. Although women who were in the U.S. longer were less likely to have up-to-date screening, the degree of acculturation likely has a stronger influence than the duration in the U.S. Citation Format: Edwin Chandraskar, Helen Lam, Karen Kim. Cervical cancer screening among Asian immigrants in Chicago. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the Sixth AACR Conference: The Science of Cancer Health Disparities; Dec 6–9, 2013; Atlanta, GA. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2014;23(11 Suppl):Abstract nr B73. doi:10.1158/1538-7755.DISP13-B73

HUPING LING. Chinese Chicago: Race, Transnational Migration, and Community since 1870.

In her sweeping and nuanced book, Huping Ling traces the history of Chinese in Chicago from the arrival of the three Moy brothers in the 1870s to the multiplicity of communities in which Chinese Chicagoans live today. While the book's main geographical focus is the Midwest, it is intimately linked to a larger, transnational world. Three major themes thread the book: the position of Chinese immigrants in Chicago's complex racial hierarchy, their strong ties to China, and the making of an intricate community with conflicts and shifting loyalties. Guiding readers with landmarks and their significance for transnational history, the author emphasizes space both in Chicago and in the places from which Chinese migrated. Drawing on myriad sources in English and Chinese, Ling shines light on the uniqueness of Chicago and its Chinese communities. The first part of the book provides a transnational perspective, giving an account of the long history of migration to and from Guangdong, while highlighting the importance of Canton in southern China. We learn of the central role played by the Moys and the key site from which they emigrated, Taishan County. The book situates Chinese arrivals in the broader history of Chicago and its racial geography. Addressing the relocation of Chinatown, Ling underscores Chinese survival strategies in a climate of increased racial suspicion and divisiveness at the turn of the twentieth century.

Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Immigrant Self-employment: A Case Study of Korean Immigrants in Chicago

Spatio-Temporal Dynamics of Immigrant Self-employment: A Case Study of Korean Immigrants in Chicago

Pietism and Pentecostalism: Spiritual Cousins or Competitors?

Abstract Scholars of Pentecostalism typically trace the movement’s roots to the Wesleyan-Holiness movement and the healing revivals of the nineteenth century. Often overlooked is the influence of Pietism on early Pentecostalism. Pietism began as a spiritual renewal movement among Lutherans in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Germany, but its ethos of unmediated spiritual experience of God filtered into the stream of European and North American evangelical Christianity. Outbreaks of speaking in tongues and other ecstatic experiences happened among Scandinavian Pietist immigrants in Chicago and the upper Midwest of North America several years before the birth of Pentecostalism in Topeka and at Azusa Street in the first decade of the twentieth century. Pietists and Pentecostals are spiritual cousins who can learn from each other.