Image-schematic Structure Research Articles

“‘A huge man is bursting out of a rock’”: bodies, motion, and creativity in verbal reports of musical connotation

The present study proposes a new approach to musical referentiality and its alleged tendency to relate to bodily experience and movement. To address this, we collected a corpus of 38,587 words (2,265 verbal descriptions of ‘associations’ or ‘imagery’ sparked by short musical excerpts by 554 participants from 32 countries). We tested the hypotheses that verbalizations containing clear references to bodies and/or their movement will (1) be prevalent in the data; (2) tend to be more creative than descriptions not containing such references; and (3) display similar underlying image-schematic structures, themselves hypothesized in cognitive linguistics to be a consequence of bodily interactions. Our analysis suggests that (1) descriptions containing references to human or animal bodies or body parts, and to movement, significantly outnumber those not containing such references, with a strong correlation between the invocation of bodies and movement ; (2) descriptions containing references to bodies and movement are deemed more creative by an automated creativity assessment routine than those not containing them; and (3) a qualitative linguistic analysis of the most creative descriptions reveals some embodied, image-schematic similarities beneath outwardly very different verbalizations. These findings suggest that musical meaning, while open-ended, may be partly constrained by tractable principles.

Analysis of one lexicographic case: the Russian noun svist ‘whistle’

The subject of the article is the application of the case study method to the description of lexical semantics, in particular, to the analysis of a dictionary entry. The author considers the Russian noun SVIST ‘whistle’ as an object, namely, its description in the “Dictionary of the Russian language” (1984). Semantic analysis shows that the description of the word polysemy in the dictionary does not correspond to the nature of the semantic representations that are assigned to this lexeme. The author offers his own version of the semantic description of this noun, in particular, using the category of image-schematic structure. Special attention is devoted to the problem of the dictionary presentation of syntactic representations, i.e. combinatory of the word.

Unweaving the embodied nature of English temporal prepositions

AbstractThe metaphortime is space(Lakoff & Johnson 1999) and the pervasiveness of metaphor and image-schematic structure in human conceptualization (Johnson 1987;Hampe 2005) have been widely accepted among cognitive scientists as constructs that help explain non-spatial and temporal linguistic constructions. However, Conceptual Metaphor Theory (CMT) might not be the whole story. While it is acceptable that moments in time can be construed as being analogous to points in space as in utterances such asatthe cornervs.at2:30, there seems to be much moretemporal cognitionthan previously thought. It turns out that time exhibits its own structure (followingEvans 2004,2013;Galton 2011) that is based on transience. This idea has made some scholars support the weak version of CMT which posits that the temporal meaning of prepositions is represented and processed independently of the corresponding spatial meanings (seeKemmerer 2005for such a view). The present article supports the idea that spatial and temporal structures complement each other in order to achieve temporal conceptions. This is indeed a conceptual pattern showed by the English prepositionatthat makes use of an extrinsic temporal reference to activate its temporal semantics. To analyze the different temporal realizations thatatmay have, the paper aims to identify the topological structure that underlies theconceptual basisof this preposition. This allows us to appreciate how the spatio-conceptual structure ofatpartially structures temporal conceptions. The paper also identifies the nature of the temporal structure that is involved in temporal realizations. The article concludes with some remarks, among them the pivotal role of the schematic temporal structure that is captured by the extrinsic temporal reference, and the role of conceptual metaphor in underdetermining temporal thinking.

The semantic network of temperature

AbstractThe present study investigates the relation betweentemperatureand non-sensory domains conceptually close to it. Observing metaphorical extensions of the Italian basic temperature termscaldo‘hot’ andfreddo‘cold’, individuated through a collocational analysis performed on the ItTenTen16 corpus, mental operations responsible for the association oftemperaturewith other domains are assessed. Interestingly, many associations are first elaborated ontowarmth/heatand then used to map concepts ontocold. Although conceptual associations are primarily motivated by embodiment, in some cases they stem from a shared “vertical” image-schematic structure:warmthandheatareup, whilecoldisdownon the axis, resembling the configuration of other domains with a positive/negative orientation (e.g.,good/bad). A visual representation of the semantic network oftemperaturehighlights that domains associated withtemperatureare mirrored in its two poles: for instance,highandlow temperatureare associated, respectively, withfriendlinessandunfriendliness.

The source-path-goal image schema in gestures for thinking and teaching

Abstract This article examines source-path-goal image-schematic structure in gestures used to solve counting problems (gesture for thinking) and to teach children how to read a clock (gesture for teaching). The analyses illustrate how path schemas inherent in idealized cognitive models are exhibited in gesture forms and in gesture sequences and combinations, manifesting conceptual content beyond that articulated in speech. While at times the path structure is incidental, enacting part of a cognitive model that is not the focus of discourse, at other times the path structure is essential, in that listeners must perceive the source-path-goal structure in the gesture in order to construct the proper understanding. The examples support the view that image schemas at the heart of cognitive models partly motivate and structure gestures for cognitive and communicative purposes, and that listener attunement to this structure contributes to intersubjective understanding and the perpetuation of cultural practices for distributed cognition.

Image-schematic structures of near, next to and by in the landscape context of The Hobbit

Various senses of quotidian words ─not just literal or physical senses, but also figurative senses─ appear very often in narrative storytelling contexts. In the case of prepositions, polysemy is an acknowledged evident phenomenon. Many linguists in the cognitive linguistics tradition have analysed the semantic contrasts between prepositions, on the grounds of image-schemas (Lakoff 1987), frames of reference (Levinson 2003) and other cognitive patterns. The aim of this paper is to clarify the meaning of the prepositions near, next to and by as well as the perception boundaries that contribute to that meaning, through the analysis of the spatial language in the book The Hobbit, by John Ronald R. Tolkien. This literary work is particularly useful for the analysis of spatial language because, by describing spatial environments and situations, the author helps readers understand an imaginary world and controls their spatial perception and conceptualisation. The term image-schema refers to imaginative procedures in connection with meaning and perception. According to Navarro i Ferrando (2000, 2006, 2011), there are three different image-schematic perceptual dimensions in which trajector (TR) and landmark (LM) play their role for the conceptualisation of a particular scene. Thus, this research provides a proposal of prepositional meaning and polysemy regarding image-schematic structure, according to a three-dimensional system, which includes topology, force-dynamics and function to illustrate TR-LM relationships. The results shed some light on the semantic contrast between next to, near and by.

The grammatical codification of self-movement in cyberspace: A phenomenological-cognitivist study

ABSTRACT The aim of this paper is to explain why we utilize a grammar typical of movement when referring to activities conducted in cyberspace. We argue that to a large degree, perception of our activities in cyberspace has recourse to the same image schemas inherent to the concept of self-movement in physical space. This sharing of image schemas unleashes a complex process of conceptual integration, which results in the construction of a concept of self-movement proper to cyberspace. We argue on behalf of perceptual (rather than an ontological) underpinnings of grammar, in the sense that it codifies image schemas inherent to our perceptions. We concretely demonstrate that thematic roles correspond to salient aspects of the image schematic structure underlying our perception of self-movement in cyberspace. Finally, we postulate that the process of grammatical codification is regulated by the principle of perceptual prominence.

The Interactive Origin and the Aesthetic Modelling of Image-Schemas and Primary Metaphors.

According to the theory of conceptual metaphor, image-schemas and primary metaphors are preconceptual structures configured in human cognition, based on sensory-motor environmental activity. Focusing on the way both non-conceptual structures are embedded in early social interaction, we provide empirical evidence for the interactive and intersubjective ontogenesis of image-schemas and primary metaphors. We present the results of a multimodal image-schematic microanalysis of three interactive infant-directed performances (the composition of movement, touch, speech, and vocalization that adults produce for-and-with the infants). The microanalyses show that adults aesthetically highlight the image-schematic structures embedded in the multimodal composition of the performance, and that primary metaphors are also lived as embedded in these inter-enactive experiences. The findings allow corroborating that the psychological domains of cognition and affection are not in rivalry or conflict but rather intertwined in meaningful experiences.

Gestures as image schemas and force gestalts: A dynamic systems approach augmented with motion-capture data analyses

AbstractEmbodied image schemas are central to experientialist accounts of meaning-making. Research from several disciplines has evidenced their pervasiveness in motivating form and meaning in both literal and figurative expressions across diverse semiotic systems and art forms (e.g., Gibbs and Colston; Hampe; Johnson; Lakoff; and Mandler). This paper aims to highlight structural similarities between, on the one hand, dynamic image schemas and force schemas and, on the other, hand shapes and gestural movements. Such flexible correspondences between conceptual and gestural schematicity are assumed to partly stem from experiential bases shared by incrementally internalized conceptual structures and the repeated gestural (re-) enacting of bodily actions as well as more abstractsemantic primitives(Lakoff). Gestures typically consist of evanescent, metonymically reduced hand configurations, motion onsets, or movement traces that minimally suggest, for instance, a PATH, the idea of CONTAINMENT, an IN-OUT spatial relation, or the momentary loss of emotional BALANCE. So, while physical in nature, gestures often emerge as rather schematic gestalts that, as such, have the capacity to vividly convey essential semantic and pragmatic aspects of high relevance to the speaker. It is further argued that gesturally instantiated image schemas and force dynamics are inherently meaningful structures that typically underlie more complex semantic and pragmatic processes involving, for instance, metonymy, metaphor, and frames. First, I discuss previous work on how image schemas, force gestalts, and mimetic schemas may underpin hand gestures and body postures. Drawing on Gibbs’ dynamic systems account of image schemas, I then introduce an array of tendencies in gestural image schema enactments:body-inherent/self-oriented(body as image-schematic structure; forces acting upon the body);environment-oriented(material culture including spatial structures), andinterlocutor-oriented(intersubjective understanding). Adopting a dynamic systems perspective (e.g.,Thompson and Varela) thus puts the focus on how image schemas and force gestalts that operate in gesture may function as cognitive-semiotic organizing principles that underpin a) the physical and cognitive self-regulation of speakers; b) how they interact with the (virtual) environment while talking; and c) intersubjective instances of resonance and understanding between interlocutors or between an artwork and its beholder. Examples of these patterns are enriched by video and motion-capture data, showing how numeric kinetic data allow one to measure the temporal and spatial dimensions of gestural articulations and to visualize movement traces.

From expectation to concepts: Toward multilevel grounding in musical semantics

Abstract This paper initiates a theory of musical semantics based on the notions of cross-domain mapping from cognitive linguistics and ground from the philosophy of language. The central claim is that listeners construct musical meaning on the basis of neither free associations nor fixed clues inherent to the musical structure. Rather, the process is grounded in a hierarchical system of six contextual constraints. On level one, the first glimpse of meaning emerges from direct physiological reactions, as when a segment of music is described as “tense.” On level two, image-schematic structure begins to be constructed, e. g., a “hopping” staccato. Level three is connotational, ascribing emotional qualities to the music, while on level four, the meaning becomes conceptual, relating the music to rich imagery, e. g., “a medieval battle.” On level five, conceptual meaning interacts with an elaborated cultural context, motivating rich descriptions at the intersection of two or more conceptual domains, e. g., when the “battle” is replaced by “gods coming down from Olympus.” Level six hosts associations grounded in personal experience. To support the proposal, a representative set of verbal descriptions from a recent experimental study on musical meaning is analyzed, showing both the emergence of new conceptual content and the hierarchical nature of grounding. In doing so, the contribution attempts to formally capture the old paradox of musical semantics: that music is full of meaning, yet that this meaning is highly underspecified, manifested in a potential rather than definite form.

Constructions and image-schema preservation. A historical-comparative analysis of PAY in Greek and English

This is a corpus-based comparative analysis of aspects of the evolution of the terms plirono and pay in Greek and English, respectively, both meaning PAY. It is based on a manual coding of the extant instances of the Greek verb from 6th c. BCE to 3rd c. CE, and 340 instances of the English verb from 13th c. to 15th c. CE. It is grounded on the hypothesis that the image-schematic gestalts immanent to the conceptualisations of linguistically coded terms are preserved through semantic extension, otherwise known as invariance principle. It identifies and compares some constraints that the distinct image-schematic origins of plirono and pay have imposed onto the semantic evolution of the terms. It is argued that the image-schemas underlying the conceptual constitution of them are these of CONTAINER and BALANCE, respectively. Consequently, a comparison follows between the terms, regarding two aspects: the semantic listing of elements within their frame-semantic structure, on the one hand, and the grammatically expressed constructional encoding of these elements, on the other. Subsequently, some asymmetries found between the terms’ constructional paradigms are related to the constraints imposed on their evolutionary paths by the underlying image-schematic structure. Conclusively, it is shown that, although the situational ontologies may appear identical in terms of the semantic listing of their frame-semantic elements, the perspectival construal over these ontologies is distinct. Entrenched grammatical realisation constitutes a second level of perspectivisation over the conceptual make-up of a frame.

Metaphorical profile of distress in English media discourse

AbstractThe current research is directed towards the transition of distress studies in the English speaking culture from the prototype towards the conceptual metaphor approach. It enables the enlightenment of mental images, which underlie distress language usage in modern mass communication. The analysis involves identification of conceptual distress metaphors and metonymies within the image-schematic structure. The study includes a cognitive semantic analysis of linguistic units of the distress lexicon retrieved from the GloWbE, BNC, COCA, English newspapers and media platforms. Figurative language reveals conventional beliefs about distress represented in English media discourse, such as strong associations of emotion with darkness and coldness. Metaphorical mappings contain views about the reasons for distress experience which lie in the loss of balance or inner equilibrium, loss of control, and convictions about the reaction characterizing a person as being weak and brittle. The findings of data analysis are summed up in a metaphorical profile of distress (MPD) which discloses the behavioural patterns (communicative behaviour, adequacy/inadequacy of behaviour, ability to socialize) and physical effects including health issues.

Understanding Starts in the Mesocosm: Conceptual metaphor as a framework for external representations in science teaching

In recent years, researchers have become aware of the experiential grounding of scientific thought. Accordingly, research has shown that metaphorical mappings between experience-based source domains and abstract target domains are omnipresent in everyday and scientific language. The theory of conceptual metaphor explains these findings based on the assumption that understanding is embodied. Embodied understanding arises from recurrent bodily and social experience with our environment. As our perception is adapted to a medium-scale dimension, our embodied conceptions originate from this mesocosmic scale. With respect to this epistemological principle, we distinguish between micro-, meso- and macrocosmic phenomena. We use these insights to analyse how external representations of phenomena in the micro- and macrocosm can foster learning when they (a) address the students’ learning demand by affording a mesocosmic experience or (b) assist reflection on embodied conceptions by representing their image schematic structure. We base our considerations on empirical evidence from teaching experiments on phenomena from the microcosm (microbial growth and signal conduction in neurons) and the macrocosm (greenhouse effect and carbon cycle). We discuss how the theory of conceptual metaphor can inform the development of external representations.

The Role of Image Schemas and Superior Psychic Faculties in Zoosemiosis

Image schemas are mental constructs central to human cognitive psychology. The neurobiological grounding of these structures has been suggested by experimental research both in non-human primates (Rizzolatti and Craighero 2004; Umilta et al. 2001) and lower animals (Knudsen 2002, 1998). However, their applicability as concrete cognitive products has not been explored yet in zoosemiotics. This study shows that image schemas are highly instrumental to making sense of the impersonations of two animals featured in biology research studies and wildlife documentary films: the mimic octopus (Thaumoctopus mimicus) and the Gibb’s sea spider crab (Pisa armata). In analysing the movements and postures of these animals, it is argued that image schemas underlie recurring patterns of animal bodily experience and response, which ties image-schematic structures to non-human intersubjectivity. In line with the pluralistic view of zoosemiotics (e.g. Maran, Martinelli and Turovski 2011), this paper takes an intermediary position in the continuity–discontinuity debate regarding communication in humans and animals. In this regard, the complexity of the creative behavioural models of the animals examined leaves the door open for the existence of sophisticated mental life in non-human species.

Image Schemas in Clock-Reading: Latent Errors and Emerging Expertise

An embodied view of mathematical cognition should account not only for how we use our bodies to think and communicate mathematically but also how our bodies equip us to conceive of mathematical ideas. Research in cognitive semantics claims that the human conceptual capacity rests on a foundation of image schemas: topological patterns of spatial relations and simple dynamics abstracted from sensorimotor experience. A cognitive ethnography of elementary mathematics lessons in clock-reading reveals different image schemas used to read the hour for landmark times (three o'clock), relative times (a quarter past three), and absolute times (three fifteen). When considered together with the sequence of learning, the image schema analysis predicts the most common error observed in children's time-telling while also revealing the source of latent errors that lead to sudden breakdowns. Comparison of the image-schematic structure of different levels of sophistication in reading “quarter past” times illustrates how enriched image-schematic structure interrelates different aspects of time-telling, supporting flexible performance in novel situations. Relating visible actions to these aspects of ongoing conceptualization will help experts provide a more complete account of embodied mathematical cognition, teaching, and learning.

Large‐area p‐type HIP‐MWT silicon solar cells with screen printed contacts exceeding 20% efficiency

AbstractWe present metal wrap through (MWT) silicon solar cells with passivated surfaces based on a simplified device structure. This so‐called HIP‐MWT structure (high‐performance metal wrap through) does not exhibit an emitter on the rear side and therefore simplifies processing. The confirmed peak efficiency of the fabricated solar cells with an edge length of 125 mm, screen printed contacts and solder pads is 20.2%. To our knowledge, this is the highest value reported for large‐area p‐type silicon solar cells to date.magnified imageSchematic structure of the fabricated HIP‐MWT solar cells(© 2011 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)

Cognitive Linguistics–Inspired Empirical Study of Chinese EFL Teaching

Aiming to verify how and why insightfulness of the CL-inspired approach can facilitate L2 or FL learners in the process of learning English as a second or a foreign language, an empirical study of Chinese EFL learners has been carried out in the authentic Chinese EFL classroom on the campus of Tianjin Foreign Studies University. After the classroom treatment, it has been found that the EG outperformed the CG by 21.7% based on the results from the delayed posttest in Experiment 1; by 6.73% in Experiment 2; by 6.61% in Experiment 3; by 21.7% in Experiment 4. The study has concluded that through awakening students’ metaphoric awareness and analyzing features of the image schematic structure, the CL-inspired approach benefits L2 or FL learners in the process of learning English as a foreign language with respect to lexical and grammatical competence, metaphorical and pragmatic or sociolinguist competence, including semantic comprehension in reading, writing and translation, particularly in terms of long-term retention of memory.

Connecting frames and constructions

Constructional analysis of corpus data can contribute to the analysis of a semantic frame, as demonstrated by a small corpus study of eat and feed. The EAT/FEED frame forms part of a taxonomy of frames including the superordinate CONSUME frame and subordinate frames of human vs. animal eating; constructional and metaphor data in the corpus shows that English covertly distinguishes human and animal eating. The EAT frame includes three phases (intake, process, and ingest), differentiated lexicogrammatically. The EAT frame also includes three domains in its domain matrix: physical, biological (nutritional) and social, all clearly differentiated by distinct constructions in the corpus. An examination of metaphors with eat and feed in the corpus demonstrate that the target domain contributes image-schematic structure to the metaphorical mapping, contrary to the Invariance Hypothesis.

Study on Superabsorbent Composite, 14

AbstractSummary: Organo‐attapulgite (organo‐APT) was prepared by modifying APT using four quaternary ammonium salts with various lengths of the alkyl group, including (octyl)trimethylammonium bromide (OTMABr) and (stearyl)trimethylammonium chloride (STMACl), etc. A series of composite hydrogels, poly(acrylic acid)/organo‐APT, from acrylic acid (AA), and organo‐APT was prepared by aqueous polymerization, using N,N′‐methylenebisacrylamide (MBA) as a crosslinker and ammonium persulfate (APS) as an initiator. The organification and organification degree of APT as well as the corresponding composites were characterized by FTIR, TGA, and XRD. The effects of the length of the alkyl group for different quaternary ammonium salts, organification degree of APT, and organo‐APT content on water absorbency and swelling behaviors in various electrolyte solutions were investigated in this study. Equilibrium water absorbency strongly depends on chain length of the alkyl group of quaternary ammonium salts, organification degree of APT as well as organo‐APT content. Longer alkyl group, higher organification degree, and proper organo‐APT content are of benefit for the improvement of equilibrium water absorbency. Equilibrium water absorbency in distilled water for PAA/APT was enhanced from 350.1 to 562.1 g · g−1 after 10 wt.‐% organo‐APT, modified with STMACl for the highest degree, was introduced. The kind of cation is the key factor influencing equilibrium water absorbency of these composite hydrogels in electrolyte solutions. Organification of APT could enhance responsiveness of the corresponding composite hydrogel to electrolyte solutions.Schematic structure of PAA/organo‐APT composite in a dry state (left) and in a swollen state (right).magnified imageSchematic structure of PAA/organo‐APT composite in a dry state (left) and in a swollen state (right).

Novel Branched Polyphenylenes based on A2/B3 and AB2/AB Monomers via Diels‐Alder Cycloaddition

AbstractSummary: Novel hyperbranched polyphenylenes based on both an A2 + B3 and an AB2 + AB approach were synthesised and characterised. Different monomers were prepared and polymerised using a Diels‐Alder reaction with subsequent decarbonylation. The polymer backbones consist of hexaphenylbenzene units which are linked in different positions and functionalised by cyclopentadienone (A) and/or alkyne groups (B) depending on the monomer ratio. The structure and properties of the resulting polymers were compared to those of hyperbranched polyphenylenes based solely on an AB2 monomer. All branched products showed high thermal stability and good solubility in common organic solvents such as chloroform or toluene. However, due to steric hindrance, the polyphenylenes produced using the A2 + B3 approach exhibited a high percentage of linear units within the polymer structure.Schematic structure of hyperbranched polyphenylenes from A2 and B3 monomers.magnified imageSchematic structure of hyperbranched polyphenylenes from A2 and B3 monomers.