Illegal International Trade Research Articles

Delimiting species boundaries within the Babyloniidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Neogastropoda) using multi‐locus phylogenetic analysis

AbstractThe Babyloniidae is a family of marine snails consisting of 21 species and two genera. Current taxonomic debates on the Babyloniidae are mainly due to their extremely similar shell morphologies, which have led to incorrect locality records and mislabelling in legal or illegal international trade. We have therefore constructed a phylogeny of the Babyloniidae with high species coverage (57% of the family) by using multi‐locus genes (cytochrome c oxidase subunit I [COI], 16S, and H3) with four species delimitation methods (Best Close Match [BCM], Assemble Species by Automatic Partitioning [ASAP], Bayesian Poisson Tree Process [bPTP] and Multi‐rate Poisson Tree Processes [mPTP]). Based on our results, 13 clades/operational taxonomic unit were observed, which confirms pre‐existing species status for 10 Babylonia and one Zemiropsis taxa: B. areolata (Link, 1807), B. borneensis (Sowerby II, 1864), B. feicheni Shikama, 1973, B. formosae (Sowerby II, 1866), B. japonica (Reeve, 1842), B. lutosa (Lamarck, 1816), B. pieroangelai Cossignani, 2008, B. spirata (Linnaeus, 1758), B. valentiana (Swainson, 1822), B. zeylanica (Bruguière, 1789) and Z. papillaris (Sowerby I, 1825). A monophyletic group with four species collected from Indonesia which includes B. spirata f. balinensis Cossignani, 2009, B. spirata f. semipicta (Sowerby II, 1866) and B. angusta Altena & Gittenberger, 1981, implying they should belong to a single species, B. semipicta. Additionally, we suggest B. formosae habei Altena & Gittenberger, 1981 should be escalated as B. habei, and not as a subspecies.

US wildlife trade data lack quality control necessary for accurate scientific interpretation and policy application

AbstractInternational wildlife trade data are frequently used by government agencies, conservation organizations, and scientific researchers to study and protect species from overexploitation and prevent the spread of invasive species and introduction of zoonotic pathogens. Inaccurate data can lead to mistaken conclusions by researchers, the development of unsuccessful remedial conservation actions, and provide government officials with incorrect views of detrimental trade. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) maintains the world's most comprehensive national dataset of legal and illegal international wildlife trade recorded by individual shipments and species in its Law Enforcement Management Information System (LEMIS). Although the importance of LEMIS data is not to be understated, the errors and inconsistencies contained therein have not previously been adequately recognized or studied. Based on firsthand experiences with the creation and application of LEMIS data, this manuscript describes a variety of errors, biases, omissions, and an overall lack of data quality assurance. An independent audit of the LEMIS wildlife trade database and the service's policies, procedures, and protocols for managing this system is needed. Additional recommendations are also offered to develop better management standards and bring greater resources for managing LEMIS, asking the nongovernmental organization and intergovernmental organization user communities to play a role.

How to discriminate wood of CITES-listed tree species from their look-alikes: using an attention mechanism with the ResNet model on an enhanced macroscopic image dataset.

Global illegal trade in timbers is a major cause of the loss of tree species diversity. The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) has been developed to combat the illegal international timber trade. Its implementation relies on accurate wood identification techniques for field screening. However, meeting the demand for timber field screening at the species level using the traditional wood identification method depending on wood anatomy is complicated, time-consuming, and challenging for enforcement officials who did not major in wood science. This study constructed a CITES-28 macroscopic image dataset, including 9,437 original images of 279 xylarium wood specimens from 14 CITES-listed commonly traded tree species and 14 look-alike species. We evaluated a suitable wood image preprocessing method and developed a highly effective computer vision classification model, SE-ResNet, on the enhanced image dataset. The model incorporated attention mechanism modules [squeeze-and-excitation networks (SENet)] into a convolutional neural network (ResNet) to identify 28 wood species. The results showed that the SE-ResNet model achieved a remarkable 99.65% accuracy. Additionally, image cropping and rotation were proven effective image preprocessing methods for data enhancement. This study also conducted real-world identification using images of new specimens from the timber market to test the model and achieved 82.3% accuracy. This study presents a convolutional neural network model coupled with the SENet module to discriminate CITES-listed species with their look-alikes and investigates a standard guideline for enhancing wood transverse image data, providing a practical computer vision method tool to protect endangered tree species and highlighting its substantial potential for CITES implementation.

Bear trade in Poland: an analysis of legal and illegal international trade from 2000 to 2021

Commercial trade is one of the leading threats to bears as they are targeted for trophies, food and medicines. While the threat from illegal trade and trafficking has been extensively studied in Asia, understanding of bear trade dynamics outside this region is limited. Poland is an end use destination for wildlife products such as trophies and wildlife-based traditional medicines. To gain an understanding of the bear trade in Poland, we conducted an analysis of (1) seizure data, (2) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) trade data and (3) online surveys of Polish websites. We found that the trade of bears in Poland predominantly involves a demand for traditional bear-based medicines and, to a lesser extent, trophies. While trade in bear-based medicines and trophies is permissible with appropriate permits, illegal trade in such commodities is occurring in violation of CITES and European Union Wildlife Trade Regulations and in case of brown bear specimens—also national laws. This may possibly be due to a lack of public awareness regarding laws governing the import and export of bear parts and derivatives in which case education and awareness raising programmes might prove beneficial in eradicating trafficking of bear-based medicines and trophies. The use of bear bile for traditional medicine in Eastern Europe has not been previously documented and merits further research as to its scale, the source of bears used for these purposes and the potential impacts to bear populations.

Modeling population extirpation rates of white‐bellied and giant pangolins in Benin using validated local ecological knowledge

AbstractPangolins are globally threatened by unsustainable hunting for local use and illegal international trade, plus habitat loss. In Benin (West Africa), white‐bellied and giant pangolins have experienced a contraction in their distribution areas and population decline during the last two decades. To better understand the factors underlying declines in these species, we investigated extirpation rates of populations over the last 20 years. Because pangolins are elusive species difficult to monitor by standard methods, the status of populations has been assessed through a local ecological knowledge (LEK) approach. We collected information on persistence or extirpation status of pangolins from 156 localities. A binomial model was built to predict population persistence probability as a function of past and ongoing landscape changes, initial abundance (1998), human pressures, and density of the protected area network. The LEK‐based model was highly accurate (97% correct classification rate) in predicting the presence of white‐bellied pangolin in 52 localities where its presence has been confirmed independently. According to model outputs, persistence probability of pangolins is positively related to distance to main road, initial population abundance, and negatively related to deforestation, shrinkage of favorable habitat, and distance to protected areas. When those factors are controlled for, the white‐bellied pangolin has a higher probability of persistence than the giant pangolin. Even assuming no further habitat change, the distribution area of the white‐bellied pangolin is predicted to keep decreasing against an unavoidable extinction of the giant pangolin in Benin in the next two decades. Besides validating the usefulness of LEK as a population assessment method, this study emphasizes that, despite a demonstrated positive effect of protected areas, the current situation is not sustainable for pangolins and calls for urgent conservation actions to stop or reduce overhunting.

Bears in the Russian Far East illegally exploited for meat, medicine and trophies

Background and Research Aims Russia is a key source of bear parts in illegal trade but bear trade dynamics within the country is unknown. This study aims to address this gap by examining the legal and illegal international trade of bears in the Russian Far East. Methods Illegal trade of bears from the Russian Far East was analysed using seizure data from the Russian customs authorities from 2015 to 2019, while legal trade was analysed using CITES trade data. Results There were 116 seizures of bears involving the Russian Far East. Bear paws, claws and gall bladders were the main commodities seized revealing a demand for meat, trophies and medicine. During the same timeframe, Russia legally exported bear trophies, parts and derivatives to 55 countries and territories. Trophies were largely destined to the US and European countries whereas bear gall bladders, paws and derivates to Hong Kong. Conclusion This study shows that bears in Russia are threatened by poaching and illegal trade. They are killed for their gall bladders which are exported to Asian markets. They are also killed and exported as trophies predominantly to the US and European countries. As a game resource, Russia permits the hunting of Asiatic black bears and brown bears within established harvest quotas. Despite this, bears are being illegally killed and trafficked beyond Russia’s borders in violation of national laws and CITES trade regulations. Implications for Conservation Illegally sourced bear parts from Russia have been found in numerous countries across the globe. Further research is needed to quantify the overall illegal trade from Russia to understand the impact illegal offtake and trade has on wild bear populations in Russia. Further, the hunting of bears in Russia warrants greater regulation and monitoring to prevent the poaching of their parts for trade.

A DNA barcode reference library for CITES listed Malagasy Dalbergia species.

On Madagascar, the illegal and unsustainable exploitation and illegal international trade of Dalbergia (rosewood) precious woods remain a serious conservation problem. Members of this genus are at high risk of extinction as a consequence of logging, mining, and slash and burn agriculture. Morphological identification of these Malagasy species is difficult in the absence of flowers and fruits, especially in the case of cut trees, sawn wood, and finished product. In this study, we use molecular barcoding to identify the Dalbergia species with the intent to contribute to the control of their illegal trade. Thirty-six Dalbergia samples representing 12 Malagasy species of which 11 have high commercial value, were collected to test the efficacy of a region of the plastid genome (rbcL) and a nuclear-transcribed ITS for barcoding. These widely used markers, as well as DNA barcoding gaps, "best match" and "best close match" approaches, and the neighbor-joining method were employed. All samples were amplified and sequenced using the two markers. Using a single locus, the "best match" and "best close match" approaches revealed that ITS has high discriminatory power within the tested Malagasy species. The combination of rbcL + ITS revealed 100% species discrimination. This study confirms that ITS alone and in combination with chloroplast barcode rbcL allow non-ambiguous identification for the 12 species studied. The results contribute to the development of DNA barcoding as a useful tool to identify Malagasy Dalbergia and suggest that the approach developed should be expanded to all 56 potentially exploited species in reference to international CITES requirements and the sustainable management of valuable resources.

State of the Field: A New Historiography for the Old South? Slavery and Capitalism, White Elites and Enslaved Blacks

State of the Field: A New Historiography for the Old South?Slavery and Capitalism, White Elites and Enslaved Blacks Lacy Ford (bio) For roughly a decade, historians’ understanding of the antebellum American South has been increasingly influenced by a new burst of scholarship collectively labelled “The New History of Capitalism.” Scholars leading the argument for the New History of Capitalism (NHC) contend with considerable, but sometimes reckless, vigor that the slaveholding South stood on the driving edge of the larger capitalist and imperialist project of the nineteenth century. There is much in these works to recommend an emphasis on capitalism and imperialism as creators of the Old South, certainly as it existed in the late antebellum era, and the region played a large role in the evolution of those two projects. But the core, or rather the heart, of the NHC’s argument places cotton and slavery together as the dominant driving force behind the expansion of both capitalism and imperialism in the nineteenth century world. Yet there are also scholarly cautions that must be acknowledged and even damaging misconceptions and erroneous assumptions that promise to limit the NHC’s influence on the historiography of the Old South over the long term. This new corpus of scholarship characterizes southern slaveholders as acquisitive, expansionist, and possessing a broad ambition for power reaching well beyond their control of enslaved Black people. Collectively, the new NHC literature attempts to radically transform our understanding of the slaveholders’ role in furthering capitalist and imperial designs, not only in the American South but also in other parts of the world. In the NHC’s view, as the South’s slaveholding elite committed itself to pursuing territorial expansion and extending slavery, its aspirations moved beyond mastery and profit toward the building of an empire for cotton and the creation of a truly global economy sustained to a large degree by cotton production in the American South.1 This essay examines the NHC corpus, acknowledging its value, especially as a debating point, but also probes its weaknesses as revealed by existing and contemporary scholarship. [End Page 442] An earlier work, Adam Rothman’s Slave Country: American Expansion and the Origins of the Deep South (2005), anticipated the coming turn in antebellum southern historiography by emphasizing the slaveholders’ seemingly unquenchable desire for territorial expansion and the acquisition of more and more enslaved Black people, but this book did not present deep South slaveholders as creators of the international capitalist enterprise. According to Rothman, Southern slaveholders and aspiring slaveholders rushed into the old Southwest (Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana), seeking more land and more enslaved labor (whether via the illegal international slave trade, the legal domestic trade, or in-migration from the upper South and older cotton states). Rothman embraced the notion that the slaveholders of the lower South had embarked upon an imperialist endeavor to establish an ever-growing empire for cotton centered in the lower South.2 Yet at the same time, as one reviewer noted, Rothman was “sensitive to the hundreds and even thousands of individual decisions involved in making the old Southwest a slave country.”3 Those decisions included choices by white people about whether to buy or sell slaves, and decisions by the enslaved over whether or not to run away from a new master in an attempt to preserve a family—and many other decisions large and small made by both slaveholders and the enslaved. Ultimately this sea of decisions led the region’s slaveholders to establish the lower South as a critical plantation periphery supplying needed raw material for the core of the world’s emerging capitalist economy. But the region remained largely on the margins of the industrial revolution that it sustained, Rothman argued, while its planter elite nonetheless developed and retained close connections with the core. The expansionist slaveholders built a new cotton empire in the old Southwest, but it was far less clear that these slaveholders had embarked upon a capitalist project for cotton to drive the world economy. On balance, Rothman’s book endorsed the notion that slaveholders led an expansionist, even imperialist, regime in terms of controlling cotton lands, but it did not endorse the idea that Southern slaveholders...

Identification of Shark Species Based on Their Dry Dorsal Fins through Image Processing

Shark populations worldwide have suffered a decline that has been primarily driven by overexploitation to meet the demand for meat, fins, and other products for human consumption. International agreements, such as CITES, are fundamental to regulating the international trade of shark specimens and/or products to ensure their survival. The present study suggests algorithms to identify the dry fins of 37 shark species participating in the shark fin trade from 14 countries, demonstrating high sensitivity and specificity of image processing. The first methodology used a non-linear composite filter using Fourier transform for each species, and we obtained 100% sensitivity and specificity. The second methodology was a neural network that achieved an efficiency of 90%. The neural network proved to be the most robust methodology because it supported lower-quality images (e.g., noise in the background); it can recognize shark fin images independent of rotation and scale, taking processing times in the order of a few seconds to identify an image from the dry shark fins. Thus, the implementation of this approach can support governments in complying with CITES regulations and in preventing illegal international trade.

COUNTERACTION OF CUSTOMS AUTHORITIES TO ILLEGAL TRADE IN WILD FAUNA AND FLORA

The article is devoted to the analysis of the main causes of the spread of illegal trade in rare protected objects of wild flora and fauna that are on the verge of extinction. The authors reflected the current principles of international trade, the system of international and national legal acts, as well as measures taken by customs authorities to combat illegal international trade in these biological objects

Dying for love: Illegal international trade in hummingbird love charms

AbstractHummingbirds (family Trochilidae) are among the most recognizable groups of birds, due to their tiny size, supremely maneuverable flight, and iridescent plumage. They are essential pollinators in ecosystems throughout the New World, and are welcome visitors to gardens and nectar feeders in every corner of the United States. Despite this familiarity, few people are aware that hummingbirds are the objects of active illegal international trade. The practice of incorporating the bodies of hummingbirds in love charms, known aschuparrosacharms, is a centuries‐old tradition in Mexico. The practice has now spread to the United States. This report summarizes investigations of the hummingbird trade by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service from 2013 to 2021. A total of 905 hummingbird carcasses were recovered in these investigations, representing 22 different species, 18 of which are protected by the Migratory Bird Treaty Act. While it appears that all hummingbirds were killed and packaged in Mexico, many originated from migratory U.S. populations. The species most frequently identified inchuparrosaswas Ruby‐throated Hummingbird, which nests entirely in the United States and occurs in Mexico only in the non‐breeding season. Much remains to be learned about the dimensions of thechuparrosatrade, and its possible impacts on hummingbird populations.

Can DNA help trace the local trade of pangolins? Conservation genetics of white-bellied pangolins from the Dahomey Gap (West Africa)

BackgroundAfrican pangolins are currently experiencing unprecedented levels of harvesting, feeding both local demands and the illegal international trade. So far, the lack of knowledge on the population genetics of African pangolins has hampered any attempts at assessing their demographic status and tracing their trade at the local scale. We conducted a pioneer study on the genetic tracing of the African pangolin trade in the Dahomey Gap (DG). We sequenced and genotyped 189 white-bellied pangolins from 18 forests and 12 wildlife markets using one mitochondrial fragment and 20 microsatellite loci.ResultsTree-based assignment procedure showed that the pangolin trade is endemic to the DG region, as it was strictly fed by the the Dahomey Gap lineage (DGL). DGL populations were characterized by low levels of genetic diversity, an overall absence of equilibrium, important inbreeding levels, and lack of geographic structure. We identified a 92–98% decline in DGL effective population size 200–500 ya—concomitant with major political transformations along the ‘Slave Coast’—leading to contemporaneous estimates being inferior to minimum viable population size (< 500). Genetic tracing suggested that wildlife markets from the DG sourced pangolins through the entire DGL range. Our loci provided the necessary power to distinguish among all the genotyped pangolins, tracing the dispatch of a same individual on the markets and within local communities. We developed an approach combining rarefaction analysis of private allele frequencies with cross-validation of observed data that traced five traded pangolins to their forest origin, c. 200–300 km away from the markets.ConclusionsAlthough the genetic toolkit that we designed from traditional markers can prove helpful to trace the illegal trade in pangolins, our tracing ability was limited by the lack of population structure within the DGL. Given the deleterious combination of genetic, demographic, and trade-related factors affecting DGL populations, the conservation status of white-bellied pangolins in the DG should be urgently re-evaluated.

DART mass spectrometry as a potential tool for the differentiation of captive-bred and wild lion bones

In recent years lion bones have been legally traded internationally to Asian markets from captive-bred sources in South Africa. There are also indications of increasing instances of illegal international trade in wild lion bones. The existence of parallel captive and wild supplies of lion bone are a cause of law enforcement concern regarding the potential for the laundering of illegally sourced bones through legal trade, and present a problem for the assessment of the conservation impact of wild lion bone trade due to the difficulty of determining what market-share wild and captive-bred lion bones account for. Captive-bred and wild lion bone are visually indistinguishable and no reliable method currently exists for distinguishing them. We present a preliminary study that explores the use of DART mass spectrometry as a method to differentiate between captive-bred and wild lion bones. We find that DART is able to differentiate between a batch of captive-bred South African lion bone and a batch of wild lion bone and suggest that DART mass spectrometry shows strong potential as a tool for the regulation and investigation of lion bone trade. Further testing is needed to prove the suitability of this technique. Therefore, we suggest that further research focuses on testing the capability of DART to differentiate between contemporary wild and captive-bred lion bone originating from South Africa, and attempts to identify chemical markers in bone that can be used as indicators of captive-bred origin.

Population Status,Threats and Conservation of the Spotted Pond Turtle;Geoclemys Hamiltonii(Gray,1830)(Geoemydidae) of Pakistan

The present study is based on some analytical studies of diversity, population status, Threats and conservation status of the black pond freshwater turtle, Geoclemys hamiltonii of Pakistan. Illegal international trade of the Black Spotted Turtle has escalated in the past few years which are indicated by seizure data in South and South-east Asian countries. Bangkok is one of the major destined for illegal trade in East Asia. International smuggling occurs predominantly by passengers using commercial airlines concealing animals in their baggage. Black Spotted Turtle smuggling could be part of this overall pattern of demand. Although some of the seizures resulted in arrests, few successful prosecutions of smugglers have been reported. Efforts supporting enforcement and prosecution are recommended to raise awareness of this issue and address poaching and illegal export of Black Spotted Turtles, with specific priority in Pakistan, Bangladesh, India and Nepal. Formal Memorandums of Understanding (MOUs) are strongly encouraged between governments of countries and territories along the trade route of Bangladesh, India, Pakistan, Thailand, Hong Kong and Taiwan to improve cross border enforcement.

Wildlife crime in Australia.

Wildlife crime is on a massive scale by whatever metric is used. The illegal trade in wildlife and related products is leading to the decline and extinction of many iconic species from rhino to tigers. Almost all countries are signatures to CITES and therefore should enforce national legislation if alleged infringements of trade of wildlife occur. No country is immune from this illegal trade although countries like Australia have their own specific wildlife crimes. Australia is home to many reptilian, amphibian and avian species that are highly prized, predominantly as pets. Collection of protected species from the wild is illegal in all jurisdictions yet policing remote areas of the outback, where so much of the native endemic fauna and flora lives, is nearly impossible. The illegal international trade in these species is highlighted by two case studies provided in this review. A further case highlights the issues of each of the six states of Australia having separate legislation, which is compounded when wildlife crime can be inter-state crime. Australia is one of the few countries having an institute, based at the Australian Museum, with an accredited wildlife forensic science laboratory and therefore the capability to undertake forensic testing of seized samples. One way to reduce wildlife crime may be by educating those who buy illegally seized products that there is a direct connection between the dead animal from which it came and the devasting effect this purchase has on the environment.

Underestimating the illegal wildlife trade: A ton or a tonne of pangolins?

Analysing seizure data is an important part of understanding the scale of the global wildlife trade and is essential when attempting to detect trends in organised crime activities, success of enforcement efforts and species conservation status. Confusion over the Imperial and metric systems with regards to the units of measurement ton and tonne due to careless reporting or an impression that difference between the two is an issue of American vs British spelling has led to considerable mis-reporting and underestimating of the volumes of pangolins involved in the illegal international wildlife trade. Here we highlight this issue and call upon conservationists, media communications officers and journalists to be more careful and accurate when reporting on tons or tonnes of wildlife in trade.

Bear trade in the Czech Republic: an analysis of legal and illegal international trade from 2005 to 2020

There is a large demand for bear parts in the Czech Republic, and this drives legal and illegal trade in various bear species sourced from outside the country. From 2010 to 2018, the Czech Republic reported legal imports of 495 bear parts, mostly as trophies from Canada and Russia. Illegal trade in bear parts and derivatives for medicine as well as trophies persists as evidenced by the number of seizures made by the Czech Environmental Inspectorate during this same period. From January 2005 to February 2020, 36 seizures involving bears, their parts and derivatives, were made totalling 346 items. Most cases involved trophies (skins, skulls, taxidermies) predominantly from Canada, Russia and the USA, followed by traditional medicines claiming to contain bear parts mostly from Vietnam and China. Three cases involved souvenirs or jewellery, and one case involved live bear cubs. The greatest number of seizures made originated from Vietnam, followed by Canada and Russia. As all countries involved in these incidents are Parties to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), there is a mechanism in place to jointly tackle this illegal trade. International collaboration is essential if efforts to end the illegal international trade in bear parts and derivatives are to succeed.

International wildlife trade, avian influenza, organised crime and the effectiveness of CITES: The Chinese hwamei as a case study

The Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is the most important global initiative to monitor and regulate the international trade of plants and animals, but there is a lack of (retrospective) assessments of the effectiveness of its actions. We here focus on the international trade in Chinese hwamei Garrulax canorus, a songbird native to south-eastern China and northern Lao PDR and Vietnam. Prior to the year 2000, the species was heavily traded as an ornamental cage bird, both in countries within and outside its natural range. In an effort to prevent international overexploitation, at the request of China, the Chinese hwamei was listed in Appendix II of CITES, regulating all international trade. Here we compare data from three non-range countries (Thailand, Singapore and Indonesia) for which we have bird market survey data prior to and following the CITES listing. In addition, we assess whether or not CITES import and export figures agree with observations in the bird markets, and explore the contemporary (online) trade and trafficking in Chinese hwamei. We find a clear effect of the CITES listing and Chinese export restrictions in Indonesia (before ~50 birds/survey vs ~15 birds/survey after), but not in Thailand (~10 vs ~13) and Singapore (~4 vs ~16). Singapore is the only country that reports the import of Chinese hwamei, 1650 birds in 2002–2004 only, possibly accounting for a proportion of the birds observed in trade. In contrast, neither Thailand nor Indonesia report the import of a single Chinese hwamei since its CITES listing, despite some 2000 birds having been recorded openly for sale, suggesting large-scale illegal international trade in the species. Five seizures in Singapore and Indonesia were mostly because of concern about avian influenza. Price data, corrected for inflation, suggests that prices for Chinese hwamei have increased substantially, albeit following a delay, from ~US$50 prior to the listing to ~ US$200 after. We conclude that the CITES Appendix II listing of Chinese hwamei has had some positive effect on reducing the volumes of these birds in international trade, mainly through implementation of domestic legislation in China, but that substantial illegal or undocumented trade persists in Southeast Asia, involving organised criminal networks. We recommend actions from range countries, such as China, to cease the illegal export of Chinese hwamei, from importing countries such as Indonesia, to ensure no illegal shipments of birds enter their country, and for consumer countries where the species cannot legally be traded to curb the illegal domestic trade as the demand for songbirds in these markets drives the trafficking.

Newly identified viral genomes in pangolins with fatal disease.

Epizootic pathogens pose a major threat to many wildlife species, particularly in the context of rapidly changing environments. Pangolins (order Pholidota) are highly threatened mammals, in large part due to the trade in illegal wildlife. During July to August 2018 four sick wild pangolins (three Manis javanica and one Manis pentadactyla) exhibiting a variety of clinical symptoms were rescued by the Jinhua Wildlife Protection Station in Zhejiang province, China. Although three of these animals died, fortunately one recovered after 2 weeks of symptomatic treatment. Using meta-transcriptomics combined with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), we identified two novel RNA viruses in two of the dead pangolins. Genomic analysis revealed that these viruses were most closely related to pestiviruses and coltiviruses, although still highly genetically distinct, with more than 48 and 25 per cent sequence divergence at the amino acid level, respectively. We named these Dongyang pangolin virus (DYPV) and Lishui pangolin virus (LSPV) based on the sampling site and hosts. Although coltiviruses (LSPV) are known to be transmitted by ticks, we found no evidence of LSPV in ticks sampled close to where the pangolins were collected. In addition, although DYPV was present in nymph ticks (Amblyomma javanense) collected from a diseased pangolin, they were not found in the local tick population. Epidemiological investigation revealed that both novel viruses might have been imported following the illegal international trade of pangolins. Hence, these data indicate that illegal wildlife trafficking not only threatens the status of pangolin populations, but may also spread epizootic pathogens.

A case study on the public knowledge and awareness of the Philippine Pangolin Manis culionensis (Mammalia: Pholidota: Manidae)

Pangolins are poorly known species despite their high demand in the illegal international trade. This study has been conducted to analyze the awareness of Filipinos towards the endemic Philippine Pangolin Manis culionensis and how much they would be willing to contribute to its conservation. The respondents were selected from the social media reach of the researchers. The results showed that most of the respondents know about the pangolin from mass media such as news from television. Social media is also a factor in their awareness of the animal. They unanimously agreed that pangolins are important ecologically rather than its medicinal value in the illegal market trade. Overall, the respondents showed a high degree of knowledge of pangolins and have favorable attitudes towards its conservation.