Identity Development Theory Research Articles

Identity Research and the Psychosocial Formation of One's Sense of Spiritual Self: Implications for Religious Educators and Christian Institutions of Higher Education

Utilizing Erikson's (1963) psychosocial ego identity development theory 28 qualitative interviews with religiously devout Americans are analyzed to determine different patterns of adult spiritual identity. Following an integrationist approach, we provide response to the question, “What types of identity development are accommodated, promoted, or prohibited by particular models of Christian education and the educational communities that embody them?” Recognizing individual differences in (a) the social and contextual factors that affect identity formation, (b) the way religious doubts are resolved, and (c) what individuals seek from community, we offer important implications for religious educators and Christian institutions of higher education.

A Multicultural Critique of Identity Status Theory and Research: A Call for Integration

Although identity status theory has inspired over 500 theoretical and empirical publications, it is unclear to what extent this tradition has incorporated non-White ethnic groups and theories of racial and ethnic identity development. We reviewed 57 empirical articles published between 1993 and 2003 in 6 leading outlets for identity status research and found that (a) 35% failed to report the ethnic composition of the sample, and (b) 74% of the samples consisted primarily of White participants. Given the increasing diversity of the United States and other Western countries, non-White ethnic groups need to be incorporated in identity status research, and the ethnic composition of research samples need to be adequately described. We review 4 models of racial and ethnic identity development that parallel the more general identity development process. We conclude by providing both methodological and theoretical suggestions for how identity status and racial or ethnic identity models can be integrated. Erikson’s (1963) eight-stage model of psychosocial development is one of the most influential life span developmental theories in the personality literature. It is by far the most frequently presented stage theory of development in both introduc

The Development of Stereotypes About the Rich and Poor: Age, Race, and Family Income Differences in Beliefs

African American and European American 4th, 6th, and 8th graders rated the competence of rich and poor children in academics (i.e., math, science, reading, writing, school grades, smartness), sports, and music. In contrast to middle school students, 4th graders favored the rich in all 3 domains. Youth of both races reported that the rich were more competent in academics than the poor; these beliefs were especially pronounced among Black youth. White, older, and more affluent students favored the poor in sports, whereas their counterparts either favored the rich or were egalitarian. No interactions were found between grade and race or grade and family income. The implications of these beliefs for policy and identity development theory are discussed.

Gender and Psychotherapy with Traditional Men

Therapists who are accustomed to operating in a world where gender roles are becoming increasingly androgynous may underestimate how foreign the experience of psychotherapy can be to "traditional" men. This paper describes the occurrence of transference and resistance encountered by female therapists when seeing male patients at a Veterans Administration (V.A.) Medical Center who identify with traditional American male gender roles. The discussion is informed by recent advances in the theory of male gender identity development and yields new insights into the typical defenses men may bring to the early phases of psychotherapy. Case examples from the authors' practices illustrate strategies for intervening with resistance and enhancing the therapeutic alliance. Common countertransference issues encountered by therapists working with "traditional" men are also discussed.

Identity Development During the College Years: Findings from the West Point Longitudinal Study

Using R. Kegan's (1982, 1994) theory of identity development, it was discovered that most military cadets enter college with relatively simple ways of making meaning, and for many the college years are a time of significant developmental change. For most, the key developmental issue is not self- authorship but establishing shared meaning.

Queer Man on Campus: A History of Non-Heterosexual College Men, 1945-2000 (review)

Reviewed by: Queer Man on Campus: A History of Non-Heterosexual College Men, 1945-2000 Richard A. Stevens Jr. Queer Man on Campus: A History of Non-Heterosexual College Men, 1945-2000 Patrick Dilley London: RoutledgeFalmer, 2002, 224 pages, $23.95 (softcover) Through Dilley's research, Queer Man on Campus provides a new perspective on male sexual identity and challenges the notion of fixed identities as it relates to non-heterosexual males in his study. Dilley's use of queer theory and its postmodern focus provides a refreshing view of the men whose voices provided the data for his ultimate typology. The typological terms and their connected definitions were generated by men who had attended college during the second half of the twentieth century and incorporate their experiences, feelings, and words in a historical context. Chapter 1, "Calling Names, Naming Tales," reviews the various terms Dilley uses in his research and the manner in which he defines them. Homosexual, gay, and queer each have corresponding years when the terms were used most frequently, and "normal," closeted, parallel, and denying which seem to be present throughout all decades researched. The definitions are generally the voices of Dilley's subjects or historical references. Chapter 2, "Queer Theory, Identity Development Theories, and Non-Heterosexual Students," provides an overview of current theories of identity development models and previous research on non-heterosexual students. Dilley specifically reviews Chickering's and Reisser's (1993) vectors of identity development and several gay identity models including Cass (1979), Savin-Williams (1998), and D'Augelli (1994). This chapter also provides an overview of queer theory and its relationship to gay identity development. Chapters 3, 4, and 5 provide insight into the typological categories that were generated through Dilley's research. Chapter 3, "Tearooms and No Sympathy: Homosexuals and the Closet," reviews those individuals termed homosexuals and closeted. For this book Dilley selectively chooses particular voices which he calls narrators to clearly exemplify the terms and their meanings. These narrators are a subset of his overall research population who best articulate the concepts discussed. Chapter 4, "From the Margins to the Ivory Tower: Gay and Queer Students," in a similar manner to Chapter 3, reviews the terms gay and queer. Chapter 5, "Beyond the Textbook Definitions: 'Normal' and the Parallel Students," reviews the terms "normal" and parallel. Chapter 6, "Collegiate Non-Heterosexual Identities, 1945-2000," and Chapter 7, "On the Fluidity of Identity", provide the connections of the terms presented in the earlier chapters and illustrate an insightful typology and the historical context in which each term falls. The author addresses the term denying and connects it less with what his participants expressed, but more with the writing of Holloran (1997). The chapters also support his research on the fluid nature of sexual identity through the numerous environments/experiences [End Page 334] an individual must address while in college. Evans and Broido (1999) and Stevens (2004) also address the environmental influence in their research. Specifically, Dilley discusses the following impacts: the general campus environment, gay student organizations, fraternity life, sexual activity, the goals of being "normal," emotional attractions, and media influences (p. 198). The author creates plausible concepts for other researchers and practitioners to consider when exploring sexual identity formation and provides a new understanding to the complexity of sexual identity and the importance of terms and how they may be interpreted. He provides more details regarding these socially constructed terms and how/why they were used historically. As with any qualitative study, the work is done to provide an understanding and while the resulting terms and their definitions are to some extent intuitive, it is important that the reader determine the transferability of this study to other environments. Dilley's appendix provides details of his participants and his ethnographical methodology. In this review the term non-heterosexual was used, and was probably the most challenging concept to overcome throughout the book. As Dilley talks about his use of queer theory and its postmodern perspective of looking from the edges of "normal," it was often difficult to use the term non-heterosexual. This term perpetuates the concept of inferiority or "less than" that I did not hear in the voices...

Group Norms, Threat, and Children's Racial Prejudice

To assess predictions from social identity development theory (SIDT; Nesdale, 2004) concerning children's ethnic/racial prejudice, 197 Anglo-Australian children ages 7 or 9 years participated in a minimal group study as a member of a team that had a norm of inclusion or exclusion. The team was threatened or not threatened by an out-group that was of the same or different race. Consistent with SIDT, prejudice was greater when the in-group had a norm of exclusion and there was threat from the out-group. Norms and threat also interacted with participant age to influence ethnic attitudes, although prejudice was greatest when the in-group had an exclusion norm and there was out-group threat. The implications of the findings for SIDT are discussed.

Threat, Group Identification, and Children's Ethnic Prejudice

AbstractThis experiment tested predictions from social identity development theory (SIDT, Nesdale, 1999), that children's tendency to show out‐group prejudice depends on the strength of their in‐group identification and/or their perception of threat from the out‐group. Anglo‐Australian children (N= 480) aged 6, 7, or 9 years were assigned to a high‐status team and their identification with the in‐group (high vs. low) was manipulated together with threat from the out‐group (present vs. absent). The members of the out‐group were revealed to be of the same (Anglo‐Australian) or different (Pacific Islander) ethnicity to the in‐group. Results supported the SIDT predictions. In addition, consistent with socio‐cognitive theory (ST, Aboud, 1988), dislike for the out‐group at 6 years gave way to increasingly neutral reactions by 9 years of age. Ethnic composition of the out‐group did not impact differentially on liking but it did affect the children's desire to change groups. Strongly identified children were reluctant to leave their group regardless of the ethnicity of the out‐group, whereas children with low in‐group identification were more willing to change into a same‐ than into a different‐ethnicity out‐group. It is concluded that both social identity and social cognitive processes are implicated in the development of prejudice in middle childhood.

Facilitating the Identity Development of Counseling Graduate Students as Researchers

Despite concerted efforts to modify research training environments to facilitate interest in research, graduate students in applied areas of counseling publish at low rates. This article discusses 2 identity development theories and provides suggestions for how these theories can be used by counseling‐related programs to foster students' development as potential researchers.

Advancing Womanist Identity Development

Scholars have called for increased attention to within-group variability in models and measures of identity development. As a step toward responding to these calls, the current review focuses on the womanist identity development model as a model of gender-related identity development that has been argued to be applicable to women across racial/ethnic, class, and other groups. The review provides an introduction to the womanist identity development model and its operationalization, critically analyzes literature on the model and its measurement, and explores directions for further development of womanist identity development theory and research.

Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education (review)

Reviewed by: Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education Elisa S. Abes Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education by Vasti Torres, Mary F. Howard-Hamilton, and Diane L. Cooper. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass/ASHE-ERIC, 2002. 144 pages. Paper $24.00. ISBN 0-7879-6351-8. This book provides a concise yet comprehensive overview of racial and ethnic identity development theories and offers recommendations for faculty and administrators to incorporate these theories into practice. The primary goal of this monograph is to "promote reflection, dialogue, and understanding for both dominant and subordinate groups" (p. 4). To do so, the authors convincingly portray the relevance of identity development theories by couching a comprehensive review of theory in the context of structural diversity and institutional racism, oppression and privilege, and the complexity associated with creating inclusive learning environments. The monograph consists of six chapters and a case study. In Chapter One, the authors respond to the question: "Why should higher education be concerned with the identity development of diverse students?" by explaining that understanding identity development theories is necessary to foster a marketplace of ideas created through dialogue among people with diverse backgrounds, as well as to create positive learning environments. Chapter Two then introduces some of the foundational identity development theories and offers a brief review of research that considers the application of these theories to students from non-dominant races and ethnicities. Garnered from their review of foundational theories, Chapter Three is grounded in the premise that "additional considerations must be explored and understood to fully appreciate the difficulty of developing an identity while experiencing oppression and prejudice in social, political, and educational structures of society" (p. 16). The authors review theories of oppression, the relationship between privilege and oppression, and white identity development. This ambitious chapter, which persuasively connects oppression and privilege with theories of racial and ethnic identity development, provides a critical and challenging backdrop for the remainder of the book. Chapter Four then offers an overview of numerous theories of multigroup identity, African American identity, Native American identity, Latino/a identity, Asian American identity, and multiracial identity. Prior to reviewing each cluster of theories, the authors typically provide as context a brief historical overview of the marginalization of each social group. Recognizing diversity within non-dominant groups, Chapter Five reviews research on the multiple identities of college students. The remainder of the chapter briefly discusses theories of sexual orientation and gender identity development. The final chapter of the monograph discusses how faculty and administrators can apply identity development theories to create a more inclusive learning environment. Recommendations for administrators focus on culturally inclusive policies and environments. Recommendations for faculty focus on inclusive curriculum and classroom culture. As a first step to "inspiring dialogue," the [End Page 117] monograph concludes with a thought-provoking case study about challenges accompanying the inclusion of a diversity course at a predominantly white college. The authors of this monograph skillfully integrated a vast amount of complex material in a concise piece of work. By succinctly bringing together research about historical and social discrimination; theories of oppression and privilege; the identity development of multiple and diverse racial and ethnic groups; and detailed recommendations for practice, this monograph makes a valuable contribution to the literature. While other works independently discuss these concepts, few demonstrate the implications of their interdependence. Concluding with a case study was a fitting ending to illustrate the complex integration of these concepts and stimulate conversation. The authors reviewed just enough material to inspire further reading and dialogue, which was precisely their stated goal. Although an integrated piece, a couple of chapters are particularly strong. The breadth of theories reviewed in Chapter Three, especially theories of African American identity development, is striking. The authors explained that they presented numerous theories because: "to fit a racial/ethnic group into one monolithic category . . . generalize[s] and stereotype[s] a group of people based on the assumption that their behaviors, beliefs, values, and levels of consciousness are all the same" (p. 48). While the volume of theories could be intimidating for people with no background in this area, this chapter is...

Comparing Gay Identity Development Theory to Cognitive Development

ABSTRACT The relationship between gay identity development and cognitive development, as outlined by Ivey's Developmental Counseling Therapy Model, was explored. The Gay Identity Questionnaire and the Standard Developmental Counseling Interview were administered to 78 gay men. Results suggested that there is a relationship between gay identity development and cognitive development. In addition, the findings provide evidence that gay identity development can be categorized by concrete and abstract frames of reference.

WHITE IDENTITY DEVELOPMENT AT A TWO-YEAR INSTITUTION

This study explored white students' levels of racial/ethnic identity development and whether pre-college characteristics and patterns of participation in curricular and co-curricular activities influenced identity development. Students in the study attended a predominantly Hispanic two-year institution in southern California (referred to as California College). This study offers insight into the experiences of students who are not typically members of a minority group. Racial/ethnic identity development theory serves as a framework for understanding student development. Recommendations for the host institution focus on examining faculty and administrative cultures, assessing campus climate, and creating avenues to promote racial/ethnic identity development.

The Bisexual Experience

This study examined how bisexually-identified individuals experience cultural attitudes toward bisexuality, how they establish a sense of community for themselves, and how their experience has affected their self-concept. Twenty self-identified bisexual women and men were interviewed for a descriptive study. The results indicate that cultural attitudes toward bisexuality affect sexual identity development, self-definition, visibility, and relationships. Three steps to establishing a sense of community included: perception of outsider status, location of bisexual individuals and community, and formation of new community. The effects on self-concept of forming and maintaining bisexual identity included: enhanced self-reliance, openness, and enrichment. Both gender and cultural minority status had an impact on the experience of bisexuality. On the basis of the findings, the author proposes a theory of bisexual identity development which includes the following stages: questioning reality, inventing the identity, maintaining the identity, and transforming adversity.

Children’s attitudes towards an atypical member of an ethnic in-group

Given that children have a strong bias towards their in-group, this study examined how children respond to a group member who is revealed to have negative qualities. One hundred and twenty Anglo-Australian children who were 6, 9, or 12 years of age heard a story about an (in-group) Anglo-Australian boy and a (out-group) Chinese boy who were good friends or bad enemies. In addition, the story characters displayed both positive and negative traits, and both enacted a positive and a negative behaviour. The results revealed that, as they increased in age, the children remembered more of the in-group character’s negative versus positive traits, saw themselves as increasingly dissimilar to him, and they liked him less, whereas they remembered more of the out-group character’s positive versus negative traits, saw themselves as increasingly similar to him, and liked him more. Contrary to expectations, the story characters’ relationship did not systematically impact on the children’s responses. The results are discussed in terms of the extent of support provided for social identity development theory.

From Good Student to Outcast: The Emergence of a Classroom Identity

The process of social identification draws on heterogeneous resources from several levels of explanation. This article illustrates how, by describing the identity development of one student across an academic year in a ninth‐grade classroom. Analyses of transcribed classroom conversations show teachers and students drawing on multiple resources as this student goes from being identified as one of many good students to being identified as a disruptive outcast. This case provides a counterexample to simple theories of identity development that do not recognize the multiple, heterogeneous resources involved in social identification.

Freshmen Impressions: How Investigating the Campus Climate for LGBT Students Affected Four Freshmen Students

The participation of four first-year students as investigators in an ethnographic study of the environment for lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender students influenced their perceptions, self-awareness, and behavior, supporting and extending theories of sexual identity development, attitude change, and social justice ally development. We offer implications for educators.

Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education: ASHE Higher Education Report (Volume 29, Number 6) (review)

Reviewed by: Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education: ASHE Higher Education Report (Volume 29, Number 6) Ronni L. Sanlo Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education: ASHE Higher Education Report (Volume 29, Number 6) Vasti Torres, Mary F. Howard-Hamilton, and Diane L. Cooper San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2003, 144 pages, $26.00 (softcover) Professor Allan Johnson (2001) stated that there is "much trouble surrounding the issues of difference in the United States, especially relating to gender, race, sexual orientation, ethnicity, and social class, and we understand that the trouble we experience causes enormous amounts of injustices and unnecessary suffering" (p. vii). He identified that our society is stuck in a "paralysis that perpetuates the trouble and its human consequences" (p. vii). If we in higher education and student affairs are to understand, internalize, and work through the trouble identified by Johnson, we need to know not only who our students are but also who we are as individuals and professionals. Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education reviews the current theories of identity development for adolescent and college student populations. According to the authors, its purpose is to "challenge traditional paradigms and recognize new voices that should be part of the construction of new, more inclusive policies and practices" (p. iv). The purpose of the monograph is "to inform practice and provide educators with more tools to consider in their daily interactions with students" (p. 7). Through a review of identities and their development, the monograph focuses on developmental issues of students from various racial, ethnic, and social groups as they attempt to define themselves in society. It is an attempt to foster greater understanding of the various identity groups on college campuses today. The authors' goal is "to challenge, inspire, and promote dialogue" (p. 104) about issues of identity development. The authors suggest that the monograph is needed because of the misunderstanding of populations of students who are different from the majority group. Due to society's changing demographics, interactions on [End Page 365] campus also are changing. The work of higher education needs to be more in sync with changing campus populations. The authors indicate that student affairs professionals need to be more intentional about programming, and that faulty and staff must understand how they influence the success or failure of students who are not from the majority culture. Identity Development of Diverse Populations: Implications for Teaching and Administration in Higher Education has six chapters, each with subsections of different identity issues. Chapter 1, "Why Should Higher Education be Concerned with the Identity Development of Diverse Students?" provides a brief overview of identity development and offers definitions for consistency throughout the remainder of the work. The authors remind us that this monograph is not a how-to book but a starting point from which dialogue might take place, and that a communication gap occurs when faculty and administration attempt to interact with students without having an understanding of the similarities and differences in the development of each individual students. The second chapter, "Theoretical Frameworks of Identity Development Theory: Foundational Theories," offers developmental theories beginning with Erikson (1964), Marcia (1966), Josselson (1987), and Chickering and Reisser (1993). The authors also acknowledge the work of McEwen, Roper, Bryant, and Langa (1990) who suggest that because current foundational theories are creations of European Americans, they may no longer be appropriate any longer within a more multicultural society. They add that it may be time to create new theories based on the realities of the current population. Chapter 3, "Dominant Cultures, Oppression, and Other Social Issues Affecting the Identity Development of Diverse Populations," focuses on oppression and its influences on minority students. It also explores white identity development and connections to other racial identity groups. The chapter discusses how the struggles against racism and sexism are captured in the theories of oppression. Missing from this discussion is sexual orientation and the oppression experienced by non-heterosexual populations. This chapter also includes a discussion of the three lenses through which oppression is experienced: individual, institutional, and cultural. White identity development is discussed extensively...

Weaving a tapestry: Anti‐racism and the pedagogy of clinical social work practice

This paper aims to describe how. the Smith College School for Social Work's commitment to anti‐racism, affirmed in 1994, shapes the teaching of clinical social work practice. The discussion is situated in a review of the School's mission statement, the guiding teaching principles of cultural competence as developed by social work's professional organizations, and current research and clinical findings. A brief review of the literature pertaining to anti‐racism in clinical practice follows. Various assumptions and myths are addressed concerning what constitutes clinical practice grounded in anti‐racism. I then present a case method of teaching clinical practice based on a social constructivist view of valuing multiple theoretical lenses, an “informed not knowing” stance and the intersubjective space. Three central principles inform the teaching of cultural responsiveness. They are: (1) values, ethics and self‐reflection; (2) cross‐cultural knowledge and skills; and (3) empowerment and advocacy. Although a synthesis of social and psychological theories is useful in all psychotherapy, for the sake of brevity, this paper narrows the focus to racial identity development and object relations theories, in particular Winnicottian theory. Both are developmental models. They stress the importance of optimal nurturing environments and of facilitating the emergence of complex racial and psychological identities. Specific questions are posed to promote critical thinking and dialogue in the classroom. Finally, I present a clinical case of couple therapy, lasting seven months, where the clients and clinician self‐identified as white, while the clinical consultant identified as African American. The role of anti‐racism in this therapeutic process is addressed in the context of a case analysis based on the central principles outlined.

Historians of the Self: Restorying Lives, Revising Identities

In this article I discuss the dilemma in the human sciences between believing there is an objective reality to discover and the fact that information about this reality often comes already organized into narrative forms. Different researchers may tell different stories about what they claim are the same events in people's lives. In turn, research participants are the historians of their own lives. They tell and retell their stories in variant ways and, thereby, continually revise their identities. However, theories of identity development rely on the notion that there is one primary or unifying identity that will be represented in a singular storyline. This assumption implies that if one elicits someone's account of important episodes or experiences in his or her life, one has the basis for characterizing that person's identity within some framework of identity-relevant concepts. The problem is that the retellings are often quite different from each other. People story their lives differently depending on the occasion, audience, and reason for the telling. The complexity of these issues is documented in this paper through a comparative analysis of two successive stories of the same episode told by the narrator in a film, Betty Tells Her Story. Her first and second tellings are markedly different in form of presentation, affective tone, and in Betty's reflections on the meaning to her of this episode. The problematic of retellings suggests the importance, in our theories and research in "identity," of taking the plurality of "identities" into account.