Identification Effort Research Articles

Identifying the identifiers: How iNaturalist facilitates collaborative, research-relevant data generation and why it matters for biodiversity science

Abstract The iNaturalist platform generates millions of research-grade biodiversity records via a system in which users collectively reach consensus on taxonomic identification. In the present article, we examine how identifiers and their efforts, an understudied component of the platform, support data generation. Identification is keeping pace with rapid growth of observations, assisted by a small subset of highly active users who tend to be taxonomically specialized. Identifier experience is the primary determinant of whether records reach research grade, and the time it takes to do so. Time to reach research grade has fallen rapidly with growing identification effort and use of computer vision, and research-grade identifications are generally stable. Most observations are vetted by experienced identifiers, although identifications are not free of biases. We close by providing suggestions for enhanced identification quality and continuing steps to enhance equitable credit and trust across the ecosystem of observers, identifiers, and data users.

Motorcycle steering torque estimation using a simplified front assembly model: experimental validation and manoeuvrability implications

Steering torque constitutes the primary motorcycle control input for the lateral dynamics; consequently, estimating it is important. Conventionally, this is done with complete motorcycle models, requiring significant identification effort. The simplified models in the literature only describe the steering torque under specific cases. This work defined a steering assembly model with few parameters to estimate the steering torque analytically for stationary and transient manoeuvres. The model equations followed from existing motorcycle models through simplifying hypotheses; transfer functions describing the roll response and the Lane Change Roll Index (LCRI) were obtained from these equations. Measured steering torque signals from different datasets, including diverse motorcycle classes, were used as the reference for validation. A good agreement resulted between the estimated and measured torques, in the time and speed-acceleration domains and in terms of LCRI. When using the roll as the motorcycle response, manoeuvrability was highest at lower frequencies. The scooter was the most manoeuvrable; the sports and touring motorcycles were the least manoeuvrable at low and high frequencies, respectively. Concerning design parameters, the front-wheel spin inertia and front twist stiffness influenced manoeuvrability the most. The model allows recreating the steering torque signal for new and pre-existing datasets using commonly measured signals; the signal can describe the riding style and the effort required. Few parameters are required, facilitating its use and reducing the computational burden, allowing its use for steering assistance systems.

Discovery of the Potent and Selective MC4R Antagonist PF-07258669 for the Potential Treatment of Appetite Loss.

The melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) is a centrally expressed, class A GPCR that plays a key role in the regulation of appetite and food intake. Deficiencies in MC4R signaling result in hyperphagia and increased body mass in humans. Antagonism of MC4R signaling has the potential to mitigate decreased appetite and body weight loss in the setting of anorexia or cachexia due to underlying disease. Herein, we report on the identification of a series of orally bioavailable, small-molecule MC4R antagonists using a focused hit identification effort and the optimization of these antagonists to provide clinical candidate 23. Introduction of a spirocyclic conformational constraint allowed for simultaneous optimization of MC4R potency and ADME attributes while avoiding the production of hERG active metabolites observed in early series leads. Compound 23 is a potent and selective MC4R antagonist with robust efficacy in an aged rat model of cachexia and has progressed into clinical trials.

Kuantifikasi dan Karakterisasi Timbulan Sampah Makanan (Food Waste) di Pasar Tradisional Kota Surabaya Timur

One of the new problems that arise and can have a big impact on the environment and living things is food waste. Some activities that can produce food waste, one of which is buying and selling activities in traditional markets or supermarkets. The city of Surabaya has several traditional markets that produce food waste in several areas, such as the Soponyono market and the Pacar Keling market in the East Surabaya city area. Food supply materials that are no longer fit for sale and fit for consumption are immediately transferred to temporary disposal sites (TPS) and end up as food waste. In this study, the Soponyono Market produced an average of 52.126 Kg/day of food waste with the highest category being vegetables by 78% and the Pacar Keling market of 21.887 Kg/day with the highest category being fruits by 51%. The characteristics of food waste at the Soponyono market have a water content value of 88.73% water content and 3,231.09 Cal/gr calorific value. Whereas in the Pacar Keling market, the water content is 87.44% and the calorific value is 4,222.93 Cal/gr. In this regard, it is necessary to identify the quantity and characteristics of food waste in order to find out what processing is required according to the waste produced. So that waste can be processed into energy or new useful products. The identification effort was carried out using the SNI- 19-3964-1994 method, namely by weighing and sorting food waste until the quantity, characteristics, in the form of category scope and water content value, and calorific value were known. The Soponyono market is capable of producing more and more diverse food waste than the Pacar Keling market with a different scope of categories.

FE-based damage modeling approach for short fiber reinforced thermoplastics under quasi-static load coupling anisotropic viscoplasticity and matrix degradation

It is challenging to predict the material degradation and crack initiation of short fiber reinforced thermoplastics (SFRT) components with high computation efficiency and low parameter identification effort. To achieve that, this work utilizes a hybrid method combining micro- and macro-mechanical approaches to describe the damage-coupled material behavior of SFRT. The Mori-Tanaka mean-field homogenization method is used to determine the effective linear elastic properties of SFRT, whereas the consideration of plasticity is based on a macro-mechanical anisotropic viscoplastic model. The effect of micro-damage in the matrix material on the macroscopic behaviors of SFRT is considered within the Continuum Damage Mechanics (CDM) framework. A nonlinear damage evolution law is implemented to account for the nonlinearity in the damage evolution. Targeting industrial applications, the proposed damage-coupled material model is implemented into the commercial FE software ANSYS with a novel stepwise damage updating process, requiring no user-defined subroutine. The model is calibrated with experimental data on flat specimens under monotonic and cyclic tensile loading. The FE simulation with the calibrated material model accurately describes the anisotropic deformation and crack initiation of the investigated SFRT material observed in experiments.

Identification and functional annotation of long intergenic non-coding RNAs in Brassicaceae.

Long intergenic noncoding RNAs (lincRNAs) are a large yet enigmatic class of eukaryotic transcripts that can have critical biological functions. The wealth of RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) data available for plants provides the opportunity to implement a harmonized identification and annotation effort for lincRNAs that enables cross-species functional and genomic comparisons as well as prioritization of functional candidates. In this study, we processed >24 Tera base pairs of RNA-seq data from >16,000 experiments to identify ∼130,000 lincRNAs in four Brassicaceae: Arabidopsis thaliana, Camelina sativa, Brassica rapa, and Eutrema salsugineum. We used nanopore RNA-seq, transcriptome-wide structural information, peptide data, and epigenomic data to characterize these lincRNAs and identify conserved motifs. We then used comparative genomic and transcriptomic approaches to highlight lincRNAs in our data set with sequence or transcriptional conservation. Finally, we used guilt-by-association analyses to assign putative functions to lincRNAs within our data set. We tested this approach on a subset of lincRNAs associated with germination and seed development, observing germination defects for Arabidopsis lines harboring T-DNA insertions at these loci. LincRNAs with Brassicaceae-conserved putative miRNA binding motifs, small open reading frames, or abiotic-stress modulated expression are a few of the annotations that will guide functional analyses into this cryptic portion of the transcriptome.

Dreading Yet Hoping: Traumatic Loss Impacted by Reference DNA Sample Collection for Families of Missing People.

The trauma of having a family member missing is commonly described as an ambiguous loss where the finality of the loss is not realized, as is experienced with a death. There is uncertainty due to the trauma of the absence and subsequent police investigation, leading to physical and emotional impacts for the aftercare of those left behind. There are 850 unidentified human remains and 2,600 long-term missing persons cases in Australia. The Australian Federal Police (AFP) National DNA Program for Unidentified and Missing Persons aims to scientifically link these cases using modern DNA techniques and databases. A DNA-led identification effort may assist to provide answers to Australian families searching for missing relatives, but may also contribute to the trauma experienced by these families. A literature review demonstrated empirical research for the development of scientific best practices for the collection of reference DNA samples for forensic purposes, but minimal evidence about the impact of reference DNA sample collection on kin when attempting to identify the deceased remains of missing people in non-mass casualty situations. The aim of this study was to develop an academically robust understanding of the unique impact of reference DNA sample collection on families of missing persons and support pathways tailored to the experience. This study involved 26 Australian families of long-term missing (ranging from 1 to 20+ years) people in Australia anonymously completing a mixed-methods online survey about their experiences of providing reference DNA samples to aid missing persons investigations. Respondents were representative of a range of ages, genders and relationships to the missing individual. The thematic analysis of the survey results identified the provision of a reference DNA sample: (1) resembles an overt act of hope as families perceive their sample assists the investigation, whilst also being traumatic, triggered by the prospect of scientifically matching their missing family member to a set of unknown human remains; (2) can cause immediate interpersonal impacts and ongoing impacts to families' wellbeing; and (3) can be improved by considering the environment where the sample is collected, professionalism of the police officer collecting the sample, timeliness of the provision of the sample, level of support provided during and after sample collection, and effective communication of forensic procedures and processes as they relate to the missing persons investigation. The study concludes that the complexity associated with provision of family reference samples requires the development and implementation of best practice guidelines, including psycho-education strategies to be used by practitioners to minimize the vicarious trauma for relatives already traumatized by the loss of their missing family member. These guidelines would support the objectives of the AFP Program and benefit all routine missing persons investigations.

The Arthropod Associates of 155 North American Cynipid Oak Galls.

The identities of most arthropod associates of cynipid-induced oak galls in the western Palearctic are generally known. However, a comprehensive accounting of associates has been performed for only a small number of the galls induced by the estimated 700 species of cynipid gall wasps in the Nearctic. This gap in knowledge stymies many potential studies of diversity, coevolution, and community ecology, for which oak gall systems are otherwise ideal models. We report rearing records of insects and other arthropods from more than 527,306 individual galls representing 201 different oak gall types collected from 32 oak tree species in North America. Of the 201 gall types collected, 155 produced one or more arthropods. A total of 151,075 arthropods were found in association with these 155 gall types, and of these 61,044 (40.4%) were gall wasps while 90,031 (59.6%) were other arthropods. We identified all arthropods to superfamily, family, or, where possible, to genus. We provide raw numbers and summaries of collections, alongside notes on natural history, ecology, and previously published associations for each taxon. For eight common gall-associated genera (Synergus, Ceroptres, Euceroptres, Ormyrus, Torymus, Eurytoma, Sycophila, and Euderus), we also connect rearing records to gall wasp phylogeny, geography, and ecology -including host tree and gall location (host organ), and their co-occurrence with other insect genera. Though the diversity of gall wasps and the large size of these communities is such that many Nearctic oak gall-associated insects still remain undescribed, this large collection and identification effort should facilitate the testing of new and varied ecological and evolutionary hypotheses in Nearctic oak galls.

Disentangling vegetation structure effect on invertebrate communities in contrasting growth periods in subtropical protected wetlands of Argentina

This study assesses the effect of vegetation structure on the subtropical invertebrate communities in contrasting sampling dates of macrophyte populations in the RAMSAR site of Iberá wetlands, South America. Invertebrates associated with the submersed Egeria najas and the floating rooted Pontederia azurea were chosen to provide a model involving different microhabitat complexity. The results suggest that vegetation structure provided by the two macrophyte species supported significant differences in the density of animals, with invertebrate abundance of E. najas twice as high as on P. azurea. Abundance showed no significant differences in both contrasting sampling dates, growth and decline. Our result clearly showed invertebrates exclusively associated with each macrophyte species, as well different invertebrate taxa dominating in each sampling date (decline: Cladocera; growth: Aphididae, Belostomatidae and Planorbidae). We also show that working at the taxonomic levels of family could be a sensible trade-off between taxonomic identification effort versus reaching reliable and useful results for environmental monitoring and natural resource management in highly diverse subtropical wetlands. Our results emphasize the role of vegetation structure on invertebrate communities, as well suggest that the growth cycle of macrophyte populations could be a relevant variable influencing these animals in pristine subtropical wetlands.

New Student Drug Tests at College Using Principal Component Analysis Method

Drugs are substances or illegal drugs that can endanger human life. Someone who consumes it in an inappropriate way will become dependent and even result in death. The physical characteristics of people who use drugs vary, but the more obvious characteristics are on the faces of drug users such as red eyes, stiff facial muscles, dark spots, pupils susceptible to light, sunken face shape, and dullness. The lack of physical characteristics of drug users due to similarities with other diseases makes it difficult for people to recognize them initially. However, for users whose face data has been tracked by the National Narcotics Agency, the facial data is stored in the dataset. This research was conducted with the aim of building a system that can detect and recognize prospective students whether they have ever been included in drug users recorded in the National Narcotics Agency dataset or not as one of the requirements for new student admissions to universities. The system built using the Principal Component Analysis method to process and extract images of the physical characteristics of drug users through the facial image data of drug users stored in the dataset. If the detected face has similarities with the characteristics in the dataset, it is necessary to suspect that the detected face is a drug user. The results of this study are the system is able to detect the faces of drug users using the Principal Component Analysis method with an accuracy of 90% and it is hoped that with this research the system can be one solution in helping universities as an identification effort to minimize drug use so that it can be an additional identification tool which strengthens someone detected using drugs.

Microplastic sampling techniques in freshwaters and sediments: a review.

Pollution by microplastics is of increasing concern due to their ubiquitous presence in most biological and environmental media, their potential toxicity and their ability to carry other contaminants. Knowledge on microplastics in freshwaters is still in its infancy. Here we reviewed 150 investigations to identify the common methods and tools for sampling microplastics, waters and sediments in freshwater ecosystems. Manta trawls are the main sampling tool for microplastic separation from surface water, whereas shovel, trowel, spade, scoop and spatula are the most frequently used devices in microplastic studies of sediments. Van Veen grab is common for deep sediment sampling. There is a need to develop optimal methods for reducing identification time and effort and to detect smaller-sized plastic particles.

The behaviour of infection, survival and testing effort variables of SARS-CoV-2: A theoretical modelling based on optimization technique

BackgroundThe experiences of SARS-CoV-2 are different in nature among the different states of the world. Studies on survival analysis of such pandemic mainly based on differential equation analysis, but the main limitation of such models is non-universal applicability. Consideration of improper functional relation in case of identification, survival and testing effort variables of the disease may be the cause of such non-universal applicability. MethodsPresent study using optimization techniques try to find the general functional form for the variables like identification of the carrier’s and testing effort. The study uses both the discrete and continuous time procedure of optimization technique. The main objective of the study is to institute relation between the identified carrier’s and effort taken for identification. ResultsThe study considers test as the pseudo variable for effort of identification. The study found that the relationship between test and identified is not a linear one, rather it is nonlinear quadratic type. The study does not go for using data driven methods to verify the results.

Considering unseen arrivals in predictions of establishment risk based on border biosecurity interceptions.

Assessing species establishment risk is an important task used for informing biosecurity activities aimed at preventing biological invasions. Propagule pressure is a major contributor to the probability of invading species establishment; however, direct assessment of numbers of individuals arriving is virtually never possible. Inspections conducted at borders by biosecurity officials record counts of species (or higher-level taxa) intercepted during inspections, which can be used as proxies for arrival rates. Such data may therefore be useful for predicting species establishments, though some species may establish despite never being intercepted. We present a stochastic process-based model of the arrival-interception-establishment process to predict species establishment risk from interception count data. The model can be used to estimate the probability of establishment, both for species that were intercepted and species that had no interceptions during a given observation period. We fit the stochastic model to data on two insect families, Cerambycidae and Aphididae, that were intercepted and/or established in the United States or New Zealand. We also explore the effects of variation in model parameters and the inclusion of an Allee effect in the establishment probability. Although interception data sets contain much noise due to variation in inspection policy, interception effort and among-species differences in detectability, our study shows that it is possible to use such data for predicting establishments and distinguishing differences in establishment risk profile between taxonomic groups. Our model provides a method for predicting the number of species that have breached border biosecurity, including both species detected during inspections but also "unseen arrivals" that have never been intercepted, but have not yet established a viable population. These estimates could inform prioritization of different taxonomic groups, pathways or identification effort in biosecurity programs.

Expanding general surveillance of invasive species by integrating citizens as both observers and identifiers

Expanding general surveillance can improve invasive species detection to support eradication. Traditionally, citizens report observations to government agencies and mobile-phone-based tools provide incremental submission and processing efficiencies. However, citizen-reported data have high false positive rates and diagnostics laboratories are not resourced to process large observation volumes. We demonstrate ‘Find-A-Pest’ a partnership model whereby citizens, including Māori groups, and industry representatives both contribute observations and undertake identifications. We combine a mobile-phone-based app, database, and content management system with data linked to iNaturalist NZ. We present data from a 3.5-month case study assessing the effectiveness at delivering improved general surveillance outcomes. Installed by 497 users, there were 471 observations of 176 taxa submitted by 74 individuals. In combination, citizen and industry identifiers processed 99% of observations with only 1% (5 submissions) forwarded to Biosecurity New Zealand. Citizens’ identifications were comprehensive and rapid: 79.4% of submitted observations were identified by citizens with 57.3% and 95.4% of these processed within an hour or day, respectively. Citizen identifications were correct 95.5% of the time. Many observations (56.1%) were of high-priority species profiled in app fact sheets. Find-A-Pest demonstrates that general surveillance partnerships can effectively distribute identification effort, thereby reducing false positive loads within government diagnostics laboratories. Find-A-pest was stable, robust, and endorsed as fit for purpose by users. Achieving biosecurity outcomes, such as early detection to facilitate eradication, will require a much larger-scale participation in Find-A-Pest. We suggest applying behaviour change theory to expand participation across diverse groups in future.

The 2018 California Wildfires: Integration of Rapid DNA to Dramatically Accelerate Victim Identification.

In November 2018, Butte County, California, was decimated by the Camp Fire, the deadliest wildfire in state history. Over 150,000 acres were destroyed, and at its peak, the fire consumed eighty acres per minute. The speed and intensity of the oncoming flames killed scores of people, and weeks before the fire was contained, first responders began searching through the rubble of 18,804 residences and commercial buildings. As with most mass disasters, conventional identification modalities (e.g., fingerprints, odontology, hardware) were utilized to identify victims. The intensity and duration of the fire severely degraded most of the remains, and these approaches were useful in only 22 of 84 cases. In the past, the remaining cases would have been subjected to conventional DNA analysis, which may have required months to years. Instead, Rapid DNA technology was utilized (in a rented recreational vehicle outside the Sacramento morgue) in the victim identification effort. Sixty‐nine sets of remains were subjected to Rapid DNA Identification and, of these, 62 (89.9%) generated short tandem repeat profiles that were subjected to familial searching; essentially all these profiles were produced within hours of sample receipt. Samples successfully utilized for DNA identification included blood, bone, liver, muscle, soft tissue of unknown origin, and brain. In tandem with processing of 255 family reference samples, 58 victims were identified. This work represents the first use of Rapid DNA Identification in a mass casualty event, and the results support the use of Rapid DNA as an integrated tool with conventional disaster victim identification modalities.

Short Communication: Prolactin and x-collagen genes polymorphism in Central Javanese local ducks, Indonesia

Abstract. Susanti R, Yuniastuti A. 2020. Short Communication: Prolactin and x-collagen genes polymorphism in Central Javanese local ducks, Indonesia. Biodiversitas 21: 605-610. Genetic conservation is an effective approach to preserve unique and protected species in Indonesia, including indigenous duck (Anas platyrhynchos Linnaeus, 1758). One of the most important things is an identification effort by studying genetic characteristics to support genetic resource conservation programs. This study aim was to analyze the genetic polymorphisms of Central Javanese local duck based on prolactin (PRL) and collagen-x (COLX) genes. A total of 35 local ducks in Central Java was collected as samples, the duck’s calamus feathers were taken for tissue DNA isolation. Polymorphism analysis of PRL and COLX genes were performed using single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers and PCR-RFLP method. The amplicons were then digested with DraI restriction enzyme (AhaIII) (5'TTT/ AAA) for PRL gene, and HaeIII (BsuRI) enzyme (5'GG/ CC-3 ') for COLX gene. The genotype was determined based on RFLP PCR amplicon band results from each target gene. For each gene, data on genotype frequencies, allele frequencies, expected heterozygosities (HE), and Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium were analyzed using PopGene32 software. Based on the PRL gene, there were 25 ducks (71.43%) with BB genotype and 10 ducks (28.57%) with AB genotype. While based on the COLX gene, as many as 25 ducks (71.43%) had TT genotypes, 9 ducks (25.71%) had TC types and 1 duck (1.86%) had CC types. Both PRL and COLX genotypes were clustered the Central Javanese local ducks into 5 haplotypes (A-E). The high allele frequency has belonged to B allele (85.71%) of the PRL gene and T allele (84.25%) of the COLX gene that showed high egg production and quality. Allele B (PRL gene) and T allele (COLX gene) could be predicted as weight eggs’ alleles marker.

The role of employee attributions in burnout of “talented” employees

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine a process through which perceived talent identification affects employee burnout.Design/methodology/approachData for the study were collected from 242 employees using a cross-sectional survey design.FindingsThe findings supported the mediating role of work effort in the relationship between perceived talent identification and burnout. Furthermore, the results highlighted the moderating role of employee well-being attributions in the relationship between perceived talent identification and employee work effort. The moderated–mediated relationship for burnout was also supported.Research limitations/implicationsUsing insights from conservation of resources and attribution theories, this study not only examined the direct relationship between perceived talent identification and feelings of burnout but also provided insights into why perceived talent identification leads to different employee outcomes.Practical implicationsManagement should pay attention to the communication processes related to talent identification because employees’ interpretation of the underlying motives of this identification impacts their well-being (i.e. feelings of burnout).Originality/valueThis study examines employees’ attributions in the context of talent management and demonstrates that these interpretations play an important role in shaping their behaviours.

Automating direct-to-PCR for disaster victim identification

ABSTRACTDirect-to-PCR methodology adds samples directly to PCR tubes offering gains in efficiency and sensitivity. The approach has been applied to a variety of biological sources including blood, saliva, tissue, hair and nail. We added various preservative solutions to a range of biological samples to leech DNA into solution, whilst preserving at room temperature. Tubes containing ‘free DNA’ then followed automated workflows for amplification and capillary electrophoresis. Routine FASS-automated workflows (including DNA extraction and quantification) were compared with published direct-to-PCR methodology and automated amplification of an aliquot of preservative solution. Applying preservative solutions to ~30-year-old blood stains stored at room temperature resulted in recovery of a larger quantity of DNA and more alleles (using PowerPlex 21) when compared with routine automated typing. Trials were extended to blood, saliva, hair and nail, mimicking ante-mortem samples collected in a disaster victim identification effort. Despite slightly lower allelic recovery, the faster processing times, lower costs and storage potential offers advantages for the processing of ante-mortem samples.

A method for numerical and experimental nonlinear modal analysis of nonsmooth systems

Abstract The development of nonlinear modal analysis so far has focused on structures with smooth nonlinearities. However, nonsmooth nonlinearities, which are, for instance, caused by contact interactions are highly relevant in practical applications. This paper proposes a novel numerical approach along with a method for the measurement of nonlinear modes of structures with nonsmooth contact nonlinearities. The proposed numerical method combines the shooting method and the harmonic balance method, yielding a mixed time-frequency domain representation of the system, allowing for an efficient treatment of the nonsmooth contact law within the numerical approach. Moreover, the mass of the system is redistributed such that the contact nodes are massless. Thereby, the dynamic contact problem can be reduced to a quasi-static contact problem. A salient feature of this numerical approach is that the contact problems are solved without the need for any contact parameters, such as penalty or restitution coefficients. Furthermore, the conservative nature of the contact law incorporated in this formulation allows for the calculation of nonlinear modes as periodic solutions of conservative systems. The experimental method relies on a nonlinear phase resonance approach. Hitherto, phase resonance methods have exclusively been applied to systems with smooth nonlinearities. In this study, an automated nonlinear phase resonance approach with phase-controlled excitation is used, providing a robust experimental procedure, which facilitates the treatment of strong nonsmooth nonlinearities, e.g., caused by unilateral constraints inducing impacts. The numerical and experimental methods are demonstrated by an application to a benchmark structure consisting of a beam with one-sided support leading to impacts. It is shown that the numerical method can be applied without the need for any nonlinear system identification effort and the results agree well with the measured nonlinear modes.

On the value of a prioritization scheme for resolving Self-admitted technical debt

Programmers tend to leave incomplete, temporary workarounds and buggy codes that require rework in software development and such pitfall is referred to as Self-admitted Technical Debt (SATD). Previous studies have shown that SATD negatively affects software project and incurs high maintenance overheads. In this study, we introduce a prioritization scheme comprising mainly of identification, examination and rework effort estimation of prioritized tasks in order to make a final decision prior to software release. Using the proposed prioritization scheme, we perform an exploratory analysis on four open source projects to investigate how SATD can be minimized. Four prominent causes of SATD are identified, namely code smells (23.2%), complicated and complex tasks (22.0%), inadequate code testing (21.2%) and unexpected code performance (17.4%). Results show that, among all the types of SATD, design debts on average are highly prone to software bugs across the four projects analysed. Our findings show that a rework effort of approximately 10 to 25 commented LOC per SATD source file is needed to address the highly prioritized SATD (vital few) tasks. The proposed prioritization scheme is a novel technique that will aid in decision making prior to software release in an attempt to minimize high maintenance overheads.