Iconic Position Research Articles

Alternative meats and alternative facts

The alternative animal product arena is complex and quite var­ied. Some plant-based alternative meat products are derived entirely from plants. Other entrepreneurs are using cultivated cells of animal origin to derive a product structurally similar to meat and milk and comprised of animal proteins. Many of these endeavors use a combination of both approaches with the plant-based product providing filler for the cultivated meat or milk product. Most of the discussion around alternative meats has focused on bovine alternatives because of the iconic position of cattle in many climate and sustainability discussions. A consid­erable amount of capital has been raised based on the
 envisioned market share of these products, although estimates vary widely, and the high profile initial public offering of Beyond Meat shares in May 2019 which saw share prices soar from $75 to $235, has this year seen share prices plummet to about one-tenth of that highest price. Proponents of alternative meats suggest these production systems are more sustainable based on antici­patory greenhouse gas emission (GHG) and land use life-cycle assessment (LCA)/kilogram (kg) of product, as compared to LCA metrics for ruminant meat. Much of the rationale
 invokes a simplistic narrative around GHG/kg of protein. The GHG “sustainability” metric will invariably reflect poorly on ruminants as they are uniquely able to digest cellulose through their rumen microbes, and the methanogens produces methane which is a potent but short-lived greenhouse gas. And because ruminants are typically grazing in marginal land unsuitable for producing crops, they also have a high land use m2/kg of protein. However, there is no reason to conclude that food production on well-managed pasture and rangeland is, a priori, less sustainable than food production of well-managed arable cropland. More­over, the other sustainability externalities of ruminant meat production systems such as the provision of ecosystem services and biodiversity conservation, the consumption of inedible food waste and cellulose, manure, transportation, contributions to the livelihoods and food security of 1.3 billion livestock keepers, the fact that meat provides nutrients in addition to protein, and that existing harvesting systems utilize everything but the “moo” are often ignored or simply disregarded.

Optimizing Icon Sizes on In-Vehicle Panels to Minimize Perception Time and Prevent Driving Crashes

Distracted driving increases the risk of driving errors and accidents, and it has become the main factor leading to accidents. Currently, a large amount of information is displayed on in-vehicle panels, which possibly distract drivers’ attention, diverting their gaze from the road. To minimize the negative impact of distracted driving, this study sought to optimize the design of icons presented on vehicle screens. We investigated the effect of icon size, icon position, driving state, and age on drivers’ perception time, driving performance, and subjective evaluations. A total of 42 drivers (26 men and 20 women) between the ages of 22 and 70 years participated in the study, completing a simulated driving task and a secondary visual task. The results demonstrated significant main effects of icon size, driving state, icon position, and interaction effects. Participants spent a longer time perceiving smaller icons on the center control panel in the driving state. As the icon size increases, perception time decreases at a reduced speed. During the static state, perception time leveled out from 44′ while during the driving state, perception time leveled out from 80′. On the instrument panel, perception time leveled out from 60′ while on the center control panel, perception time leveled out from 80′. Subjective evaluations supported behavioral data on the effect of icon size. Our results indicated the importance of strategic design for icons on vehicle screens, which could reduce the visual workload, then reduce the risk of traffic accidents. According to the results, enterprises or designers could target the design of icon size according to different types of in-vehicle panels or screens.

“To dream of a wildness distant from ourselves”: Capitalism, colonialism, and the Robinsonade

ABSTRACT Daniel Defoe’s novel Robinson Crusoe holds an iconic position, not solely as a work of literature, but also for its influence in economic and social theory. This article reflects on this influence by mobilizing Charles Mills’s concept of epistemologies of ignorance and Lorenzo Veracini’s work on psychological defence mechanisms in settler colonial societies. This theoretical framework motivates a close textual analysis of Robinson Crusoe that focuses particularly on four textual strategies: paired contrasts between Xury and Friday that frame enslavement as a sacrificial act; strategic use of “cosmopolitan” ideals; a theory of subjection as the foundation for legitimate power; and moral relativisms that rationalize Crusoe’s theft of Indigenous land. This analysis then provides the foundation for an original interpretation of Marx’s Capital as a critically inverted Robinsonade: one designed to demonstrate how global relations of colonial expropriation generate a crucible in which a particular imaginary of autonomous individuality is forged.

Effect of icon size, icon position and sex on clicking motion when operating smartphones with single hand

Nowadays, increasingly more situations exist where smartphones are operated with one hand, requiring an in-depth understanding of human–computer interaction in single-hand scenarios. 104 volunteers (57 men, 47 women) participated in this study. We aimed to explore thumb movements with the right and left hand on smartphone touchscreens at different icon sizes (50, 80, 110 and 140 rpx) in different operation areas (a 4*7 icon matrix). The results partially conformed to Fitts’ Law. The movement time (MT) significantly increased as the icon size decreased, but this effect was not found over 110 rpx. The MT increased with distance in the vertical direction, but icons with the same horizontal distance had different MTs, indicating that one-handed operation restricted the click on the same side. Additionally, subjects rated 140 rpx better than other sizes, and men clicked faster than women. Suggestions regarding one-handed interface design for different hands of different sexes are provided. Practitioner summary: This study investigated how icon size, position and sex influenced one-thumb click usability on touch-screen mobile phones with different hands of different sexes. The results indicate single-hand operation partially conformed to Fitts’ Law. We suggested the most economical and comfortable size and the fast operation area in one-handed interface design. Abbreviations: MT: movement time; ID: index of difficulty; RPX: responsive pixel; NASA-TLX: task load index of National Aeronautics and Space Administration; ANOVA: analysis of variance.

Ergonomic Redesign of the Coca Cola Freestyle Machine Graphical User Interface to Improve Accessibility

The purpose of this research is to redesign the graphical user interface of the Coca Cola Freestyle machine to improve its usability for individuals with visual impairments. The proposed design included a feature to increase text and button size. Also, the drink selection process was reordered. In this study, the original display and the redesign were implemented on a touchscreen laptop to emulate the actual process. Ten subjects with normal and impaired vision were recruited respectively and were randomly assigned to complete a drink selection task in using either the “Original” GUI or a “Redesign” created by the authors (n=5).User feedback was collected and analyzed. The drink dispensing task completion time was recorded and analyzed using two-way ANOVA and Tukey pairwise comparison. It was concluded that the original design was easier to navigate in terms of icon position, but the redesign was preferred because of its flexibility to change the text size.

Sir William Osler and the Schorstein Memorial lectures at the London Hospital.

The formal named lecture has an iconic position in British medical life, but it is less valued now than in the past. The Schorstein memorial lecture series at the London Hospital illustrates the evolving role of such lectures and their significance in medical practice, science and history, and the evolving concepts of medicine in society. The founding concept underlying the Schorstein lectures was an ideal of education, strongly supported by William Osler and other influential figures. The influence of the series of annual lectures and their subsequent publication among the wider medical community was immense. However, the formal named lecture as an educational experience is now less highly regarded. Nonetheless, with a changed focus, as has been applied recently to the Schorstein lecture series, such events can continue to play a role in contemporary medical life.

De windmolen

The windmill. The origins of a Dutch icon The windmill is an icon of the Netherlands. But when did this instrument acquire this symbolic role at home and abroad? After all, mills are also common outside of the Netherlands. In this essay, it is argued that during the second half of the 19th century, foreigners systematically identified the Netherlands and the windmill for the first time. More than in other countries, there was a varied use of mills in the Netherlands, large and robust mills and clusters of industrial mills. Within the Netherlands itself, development towards an iconic position is only visible around the turn of the century when the mill turned out to be a plus in tourist recruitment abroad and when mills were slowly disappearing from the landscape.

The Progressive Political Foundations of Edward Abbey’s Environmental Advocacy

For several generations of environmentalists, Edward Abbey has held an iconic position as an advocate for wilderness preservation and environmental amelioration. In an article published in Telos, Tim Luke acknowledges Abbey’s lasting influence: “Much of contemporary American environmental thought, implicitly or explicitly, circles around the literary corpus of Edward Abbey.” An articulate spokesperson, Abbey entertained, challenged, and inspired in both his writings and actions. He embodies and gives voice to those who value wild ecosystems and habitats because his advocacy derived from experience: backpacking, river running, meditating, peak bagging, and hanging out—in actual places. His narratives continue to assert the intrinsic value of such places as well as the essential need we have as humans to experience environments minimally disturbed by the impacts of modern industrial development.1 Those inspired by similar experiences are moved to understanding and to action by Abbey’s books, most memorably the classic essays of Desert Solitaire and the picaresque novel The Monkey Wrench Gang.

Young and Recognized in Service Interaction? Re-positioning Youth and Adulthood with Performance Tactics and Strategic Laughter

Young consumers hold an iconic position in post-industrial cultures. In spite of youth idealization in consumer culture, we know little of how youth is situated in everyday interactions in service culture. In our study, we focus on age-related power structures in service encounters. We argue that customer service interaction is built on the norm of an adult order; that is, to achieve an appreciated position as a customer, young people are required to act like ‘middle-aged’ consumers. To gain recognition, young consumers use resistance tactics: They create co-performing teams together with adults and modify their own performance towards adulthood by masking signs of youth. The findings suggest that young people may also resist the dominant adult order; laughter and smiling express a strategy that re-positions adults into a less powerful position in the service environment. The study shows that young and adult categories in service interaction are constantly under re-negotiation.

Mixed Emotions to Near-Miss Outcomes: A Psychophysiological Study with Facial Electromyography.

Near-misses occur across many forms of gambling and are rated as unpleasant while simultaneously increasing the motivation to continue playing. On slot machines, the icon position relative to the payline moderates the effects of near-misses, with near-misses before the payline increasing motivation, and near-misses after the payline being rated as aversive. Near-misses are also known to increase physiological arousal compared to full-misses, but physiological measures to date have not been able to dissociate positive and negative emotional responses. The present study measured facial electromyography at the corrugator (brow) and zygomaticus (cheek) sites, as well as electrodermal activity (EDA), following gambling outcomes on a two-reel slot machine simulation in 77 novice gamblers. Behavioral data was collected using trial-by-trial ratings of motivation and valence. Wins were rated as more pleasant and increased motivation to continue playing, compared to non-win outcomes. Wins were also accompanied by increased EDA and zygomaticus activity. Near-misses after the payline were rated as more aversive than other non-wins, and this was accompanied by increased EDA and zygomaticus activity. Near-misses before the payline increased motivation to continue playing, and were accompanied by increased EDA. Thus, both subjective and physiological responses to near-misses differ for events falling either side of the payline. The 'near-miss effect' is not a unitary phenomenon. Facial EMG has differential sensitivity to positive and negative valence and may be a useful measure for future studies of gambling behavior.

The Gift Relationship Revisited.

If unremunerated blood donors are willing to participate, and if the use of them is economical from the perspective of those collecting blood, I can see no objection to their use. But there seems to me no good reason, moral or practical, why they should be used. The system of paid plasmapheresis as it currently operates in the United States and in Canada would seem perfectly adequate, and while there may always be ways in which the safety and efficiency of supply could be increased, there seems no reason whatever to think that there would be an improvement if the current system changed so as to rely entirely on unpaid donors. Further, given the adequacy of paid plasmapheresis, I could see no problem if the collection of whole blood were to take place on a similar, fully-commercial, basis. Such a view is controversial. To argue for it, this paper offers just one strand in a complex argument: a critique of Richard Titmuss's Gift Relationship, which holds an iconic position in the critical literature on the paid provision of blood. As I conclude: all told, there seems no good basis for rejecting supply of whole blood for money--let alone the supply of blood plasma.

Interactions between perception, fixation, and attention determine the endpoint of an action

Perception represents the world probabilistically. If memories are approximate markers, where will an observer end an action intended to identify a remembered location? We investigated this question straightforwardly. Participants viewed a target dot, followed by a mask. At test, a mouse cursor appeared, and participants moved the cursor to the remembered center of the initial target dot. So that we could evaluate the location where a response was made relative to the starting point of an action, we manipulated the starting position of the mouse cursor. We found a clear effect of whether the mouse began above or below the true target location: when it began above, the mouse was moved, on average, too far (expansion). And when the mouse began below, it was moved too little (compression). Helping to explain these effects, response distributions were always centered below a target’s true position. Thus, observers ‘aimed’ for the same point —below a target— leading to observed compression and expansion depending on the mouse starting position. We hypothesize that this occurs because observers fixate the remembered location while executing the mouse movement, and because attentional resolution is better below compared to above fixation. Eye tracking experiments explore this hypothesis, as well as experiments with alternative response methods. But readers can confirm for themselves: where do you fixate as you move a mouse to an icon position? Practically, these results are important because many studies use mouse responses to investigate the spatial structure of perception without accounting for the mouse starting point, attentional resolution, or fixation locations. Theoretically, these results identify an interaction between attention, perception and fixation when translating perceptions into actions. Specifically, higher resolution locations, with respect to fixation, act as attractors to an executed action. As a result response distributions become distorted relative to the distributions stored in memory. Meeting abstract presented at VSS 2013

Pikaia gracilensWalcott, a stem‐group chordate from the Middle Cambrian of British Columbia

The Middle Cambrian Pikaia gracilens (Walcott) has an iconic position as a Cambrian chordate, but until now no detailed description has been available. Here on the basis of the 114 available specimens we review its anatomy, confirm its place in the chordates and explore with varying degrees of confidence its relationships to both extant and extinct chordates and other deuterostomes. The body of Pikaia is fusiform, laterally compressed and possesses about 100 myomeres. The head is small, bilobed and bears two narrow tentacles. There is no evidence for eyes. Apart from a thin dorsal fin (without finrays) and a series of at least nine bilaterally arranged appendages with possible pharyngeal pores at the anterior end, there are no other external features. In addition to the musculature the internal anatomy includes an alimentary canal, the anterior of which forms a prominent lenticular unit that is almost invariably preserved in positive relief. The cavity is interpreted as pharyngeal, implying that the mouth itself was almost terminal. The posterior extension of the gut is unclear although the anus appears to have been terminal. The most prominent internal structure is a reflectively preserved unit, possibly hollow, termed here the dorsal organ. Although formerly interpreted as a notochord its position and size make this less likely. Its original function remains uncertain, but it could have formed a storage organ. Ventral to the dorsal organ a narrower strand of tissue is interpreted as representing the nerve chord and notochord. In addition to these structures, there is also evidence for a vascular system, including a ventral blood vessel. The position of Pikaia in the chordates is largely based on the presence of sigmoidal myomeres, and the more tentative identification of a notochord. In many other respects, Pikaia differs from the expected nature of primitive chordates, especially as revealed in amphioxus and the Cambrian record (including Cathaymyrus, Haikouichthys, Metaspriggina, Myllokunmingia, and Zhongxiniscus). Whilst the possibility that Pikaia is simply convergent on the chordates cannot be dismissed, we prefer to build a scenario that regards Pikaia as the most stem-ward of the chordates with links to the phylogenetically controversial yunnanozoans. This hypothesis has implications for the evolution of the myomeres, notochord and gills. Finally, the wealth of material of Pikaia indicates that, although by definition there must be some sort of taphonomic imprint, the consistency of preservational details allows a reliable reconstruction of the anatomy and does not significantly erode phylogenetically relevant characters.

A New Framework for Natural Resource Management in Amazonia

The Amazon rainforest has an iconic position in the global conservation movement: not only is it the largest continuous tropical rainforest in the world, but it also encapsulates many of the greatest challenges facing twentieth century conservation. However, while deforestation and its potential impact on global climate systems (Malhi et al. 2008) grab most of the headlines, it is easy to forget that Amazonia is also home to a large and diverse human population (Ribeiro and Fabre 2003). In addition to the remaining indigenous tribes, there are many settlements and scattered communities of fishermen and farmers of mixed ethnic origins. The support and active engagement of these communities in conservation and sustainable resource management is essential for the success of any conservation or sustainable development initiative. Unfortunately, numerous studies have demonstrated that implementation of co-management or community-based management of natural resources is far more difficult to achieve than the abundant rhetoric that promotes it. Moreover, each failed initiative makes it harder to establish the levels of trust and cooperation that are essential ingredients of successful management systems. Even without the handicap of previous failed initiatives, successful community-led management of natural resources is exceedingly complicated and there are many potential barriers to its successful implementation (Brockington et al. 2008): Conflicts over resource use—especially issues such as fishing rights—may prove intractable problems for which mutually satisfactory resolution may not be possible. In this context, participation of local stakeholders may merely give a platform for the legitimization of vested interests in the guise of community aspirations (Cooke and Kothari 2001). Existing or historic political, cultural or administrative structures may not have the flexibility to enable effective local community involvement, and may even result in disempowerment by forcing local stakeholders to interact within an intrinsically biased framework (Cooke and Kothari 2001). There may be insufficient political will to facilitate a move toward participatory management, especially if there are many and competing vested-interests involved. There may be insufficient interest or engagement of the local stakeholder community in the management of the resource to create strong and democratic local organizations. If the participatory process is perceived as being externally imposed and local stakeholders do not fully “buy-in” to it, then the process may break down when the initiative finishes or when financial support is withdrawn. Insufficient time may be allocated for the creation of local organizations and stakeholder groups and/or refinement of the participatory process. As a consequence of these limitations, well-meaning attempts at promoting co-management of natural resources have often increased, rather than decreased, social conflict (Waters 2006) leading some researchers to argue that there is a “need for much more complex and empirical approaches for doing conservation with local communities” (Brockington et al. 2008, p. 110). Brockington and his colleagues go on to suggest that a “more open-ended, empirical approach is much more likely to help us find approaches that are effective, equitable and more in line with local needs and values” (p. 111). In this research synopsis, we describe one such open-ended empirical approach to community-based natural resource management, developed over an 8-year initiative in a rainforest community in Amazonas State, Brazil. The conceptual basis of the approach, dubbed sustainable open systems/SOS (Ribeiro and Fabre 2003), was to gather detailed information on the cosmography (environmental knowledge, ideologies, and identities collectively developed and historically located) that the community uses to establish and to maintain its territory, and use this as the basis for sustainable management and formal resource use agreements. The term ‘open systems’ was chosen to reflect the inevitable flux of people and resources in and out of the management area or system. To better illustrate the SOS approach we present data from one of our case studies that took place in the Manacapuru district of Amazonas State, Brazil. The inhabitants of this district are broadly representative of the non-tribal peoples of Amazonia, being composed of individuals of mixed descent with different degrees of historical and cultural affiliation with the surrounding rainforest. Most families engage in productive activities that are common in inhabitants of the Amazon floodplain such as fishing, collecting and small scale agriculture (Furtado 1993a, 1993b). An eight year project was initiated in 1998 by the multidisciplinary PYRA research group (Integrated Program of Aquatic Resources and Floodplains) with the aim of designing a co-management system for local fisheries that was clearly aligned with local customs and practices and which would provide a robust framework for the development of sustainable practices.

Effect of Icon Affiliation and Distance Moved on Detection of Icon Position Change on a Situation Awareness Display

Continuous gradual change is often difficult to detect, although it may be easy to detect the difference between the initial and end state if directly compared. Two experiments examined people's ability to detect gradual changes in icon position on a situation awareness map. People observed sequences of icon moves that consisted of ten .9-mm colinear moves or five 8.75-mm colinear moves and reported when they noticed a change. The relatively small moves were less likely to be detected than the relatively large moves; however, an entire sequence of the .9 mm moves was rarely missed. Green icon moves were significantly less likely to be detected than blue or yellow icon moves. This may have been due to the stimulus features of the icons or those features in interaction with the map background. Various methods that might assist icon change detection are discussed.

Bounding Neighbourhoods: How Do Residents Do It?

The ‘neighbourhood’ holds an iconic position in planning, yet there has been longstanding empirical criticism and debates about both the use and intellectual underpinnings of the concept. Despite this, it continues to provide a focus for local area planning, local policy interventions and urban design approaches, including in new urbanism. Neighbourhoods may be given physical dimensions so the boundaries that distinguish what is within and what is outside each neighbourhood can be defined. This paper asks what we can learn about such localities through a better understanding of how residents themselves actually identify these boundaries. It derives a series of questions that are addressed through analysis of resident perceptions of neighbourhood boundaries in an inner-city fringe suburb in Brisbane, Australia. The research confirmed many previous concerns about defining neighbourhood boundaries and that many residents were uncertain of the physical boundaries of their neighbourhoods.

Meistrist epigooniks, epigoonist ikooniks: Jakob Liivi luule retseptsioonist. From Master to Epigone, from Epigone to Ikon: On the Reception of Jakob Liiv’s Poetry

Jakob Liiv (1859-1930) is an Estonian writer whom most academic literary histories and encyclopedias classify in the late-romantic, so-called epigonic literary movement of the end of the 19th century. In actuality, however, Liiv’s oeuvre took shape over a significantly longer period of time, and was quite heterogeneous with respect to genre. This article sets out to approach a single, albeit the largest segment of Liiv’s oeuvre-- the reception of his poetry, which is also the aspect most fraught with prejudice. An overview is given of the criticism of the author’s poetry, both in the latter part of the era of national awakening and thereafter. On the basis of the criticism of Liiv’s poetry in his own time, one can make the general observation that the key words in the critical literature of the 1880s and 1890s were the author, the concept of plagiarism, thematic choice, the social dimension of representation, the nationalist quality of literature, the criterion of the beauty of language, and questions of form. The question of the aesthetic value of literature is simply not raised at all. In the context of the era of russification, the primary task of literature was to preserve Estonian national consciousness. Thus it is to be expected that – particularly in poetry – epigones continued reproducing the moods of the era of national awakening. In this context Liiv is a beloved author, whose poems correspond to the image of the right kind of literature, and who by means of his allegorical songs also dares to broach contemporary public issues. During the social unrest that struck the Russian czarist empire in 1905, political censorship was relaxed and the old ideals of the readership were shattered. In the context of the revolution and the renewal of language and art fostered by the Young Estonia movement, Liiv was more and more often criticized for his emotional tepidity, outworn vocabulary, and played-out themes, but this was nevertheless not the attitude of the majority. It seems that at the beginning of the 20th century Estonian literary thought diverged into many ambiguously delineated directions. At any rate, Liiv soon disappeared from view in the literary public for many years, returning to the purview of readers only on specific occasions. As time went on, Liiv increasingly became a kind of icon of the post-national awakening period. During the years of the Estonian republic, in the volume of selected poems published in honor of the writer’s 70th birthday (1929), Liiv is raised once again to a position of honor as a patriotic poet, and voices unite to praise his achievements in advancing the language and literary form. With the publication of his memoirs (1936 and posthumously in 1938), the writer is strongly tied to his own generation. Liiv’s oeuvre becomes a sign. However, once Liiv’s iconic position is securely established, his newer poetic works are finally rediscovered. Distance in time favoured new and original discussions of Liiv’s poetry: if up till then Liiv had been regarded first and foremost as a poet of the fatherland and the time, as a poet of thought and feeling, now his nature poetry is discovered, in all its suggestiveness, emotionality, and tension. This study of the reception history of Liiv’s poetry has shown how, in the course of changes in the times and the literary taste of the readership, a master becomes an epigone, and an epigone is turned into an icon. The reception of Liiv’s poetry reflects the contradictions underlying the understanding of Estonian literature, and the development of its interpretation over time.

Change Blindness in Teams: Are Three Pairs of Eyes Better than One?

Several studies have indicted that people often fail to detect changes in visual displays under a variety of conditions. More recent research has indicated that individual operators are susceptible to change blindness in military command and control environments. Change blindness has been studied extensively but only at the individual level. Very little research has explored change blindness in the context of team performance. The purpose of this experiment was to determine if teams were more or less susceptible to change blindness than individual observers in the context of a simulated military command and control situation display. Individuals and teams monitored flicker sequences of displays containing 6, 12, 24, or 48 icons for changes in icon position. Our results revealed a team advantage but this effect was more pronounced when teams communicated. Communicating teams outperformed both non-communicating teams and individuals. However, communicating teams were not immune to change blindness but team communication played a key role in reducing change blindness and the workload associated with the change detection task.

Change Blindness: Detecting Icon Position Change in Military Information Displays

Designers of military systems, such as Force XXI Battle Command Brigade and Below (FBCB2), are concerned that “change blindness” may cause users to miss information updates. In the current study, participants monitored an FBCB2 display and reported the changes they detected. Results indicate that participants were not more likely to detect icon position changes (moves), when they were large, 17.5 mm moves (control moves), opposed to when they were gradual moves (a series of 10 smaller, 1.75 mm moves). But, when moves were correctly detected, response times were faster for control moves than they were for gradual moves. These findings may help clarify how attributes of a change (here, gradual vs. control moves) influence change blindness in military information displays.

The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Edited by Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000; pp. xiv + 342. $54.95 hardcover, $19.95 paperback

Ever since films of Shakespeare's plays have been available, first on cumbersome sixteen-millimeter celluloid reels, and more recently on inexpensive videotape and DVd, they have found their way into theatre classrooms and theatre scholarship. Whether viewed as records (albeit inadequate ones) of great stage performances, as examples of the differences between the theatrical and cinematic arts, or as evidence of Shakespeare's iconic position in high culture (and more recently in popular culture as well), the increasing availability and growing accessibility of Shakespeare films have expanded their usefulness far beyond the “Introduction to Theatre” course or articles in Shakespeare Quarterly. This has been particularly true in the past dozen or so years, as several major Shakespeare films, and even a purported biography (Shakespeare in Love), have appeared in the wake of Kenneth Branagh's 1989 film of Henry V.