Ice Wine Research Articles

Study on the Effect of Different Concentrations of SO2 on the Volatile Aroma Components of 'Beibinghong' Ice Wine.

SO2 plays an important role in wine fermentation, and its effects on wine aroma are complex and diverse. In order to investigate the effects of different SO2 additions on the fermentation process, quality, and flavor of 'Beibinghong' ice wine, we fermented 'Beibinghong' picked in 2019. We examined the fermentation rate, basic physicochemical properties, and volatile aroma compound concentrations of 'Beibinghong' ice wine under different SO2 additions and constructed a fingerprint of volatile compounds in ice wine. The results showed that 44 typical volatile compounds in 'Beibinghong' ice wine were identified and quantified. The OAV and VIP values were calculated using the threshold values of each volatile compound, and t the effect of SO2 on the volatile compounds of 'Beibinghong' ice wine might be related to five aroma compounds: ethyl butyrate, ethyl propionate, ethyl 3-methyl butyrate-M, ethyl 3-methyl butyrate-D, and 3-methyl butyraldehyde. Tasting of 'Beibinghong' ice wine at different SO2 additions revealed that the overall flavor of 'Beibinghong' ice wine was the highest at an SO2 addition level of 30 mg/L. An SO2 addition level of 30 mg/L was the optimal addition level. The results of this study are of great significance for understanding the effect of SO2 on the fermentation of 'Beibinghong' ice wine.

Effect of short-term moderate intake of ice wine on hepatic glycolipid metabolism in C57BL/6J mice.

As the correlation between high fructose intake and metabolism-related diseases (e.g., obesity, fatty liver, and type 2 diabetes) has been increasingly reported, the health benefits of consuming ice wine high in fructose have been called into question. In this study, 6-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were divided into control (pure water), fructose (130 g L-1 fructose solution), alcohol (11% alcohol solution), low-dose (50% diluted ice wine) and high-dose ice wine (100% ice wine) groups to investigate the effects and mechanisms of short-term (4 weeks) ice wine intake on hepatic glycolipid metabolism in mice. The results showed that short-term consumption of ice wine suppressed the elevation of low-density lipoprotein cholesterol content and did not cause hepatic lipid accumulation compared with those of the fructose group. Meanwhile, ice wine had no significant effect on lipogenesis although it inhibited fatty acid oxidation via the PPARα/CPT-1α pathway. Compared with the control group, ice wine interfered with the elevation of fasting glucose and the insulin resistance index in a dose-dependent manner, and led to an increase in plasma uric acid levels, which may further contribute to the disruption of glucolipid metabolism. Overall, short-term moderate intake of ice wine over a 4-week period may not significantly affect hepatic glycolipid metabolism in C57BL/6J mice for the time being.

Study on the relationship between flavor components and quality of ice wine during freezing and brewing of 'beibinghong' grapes

Ice wine has prominent fruity sweetness and unique, rich aroma compared to wine. The sweetness was accumulating, the acidity and astringency tended to soften of grape berry during the freezing period. The process gave the ice wine balanced taste, with prominent honey sweetness, accompanied by refreshing alcoholic taste, soft acidity and astringency. Eleven key aroma compounds were identified in ice wine through GC–MS and ROAV values. The key aroma compounds were analyzed with Pearson correlation coefficient and fragrance mechanism were speculated. Ethyl acetate and 1-octen-3-ol derived from the aroma of grape, are produced by anaerobic metabolism and lipoxygenase pathways of pyruvate and linoleic acid, respectively. Ester aromas, 2-phenylethanol and 2-methylbutanal were derived from the brewing process, were produced by octanoic acid, caproic acid, phenylalanine and isoleucine through lipid metabolism, Ehrlich pathway and Strecker pathway, respectively. Proposed corresponding control methods based on factors that affect the formation of ice wine aromas.

Current situation and development trend of wine industry in china

China’s modern wine industry began in 1892 when Changyu Wine Company was founded. After more than 130 years of development, China has formed 11 major wine regions with their own characteristics. The wine grape varieties of China are divided into three categories: international mainstream varieties, Chinese indigenous varieties, and varieties that can be used for both winemaking and table grape purposes. There are various types of wine produced in China, including sparkling wine, dry white, dry red, rose, ice wine, aromatized wine, and fortified wine. There are more than 1,680 wineries in China, whose production modes are categorized as “Chateau & Chateau wines” mode and “winery & brand wines” mode. The number of Chateau enterprises accounts for 80% of the total, and is developing fast. China's wine industry management organizations mainly include Ministry (departments, bureaus) of Agriculture, and the Ministry (departments, bureaus) of Industry and Information Technology. And the industry service organizations mainly include the China Alcoholic Drinks Association (Wine Branch), China National Food Industry Association (Wine Branch), and Grape and Wine Association or Wine Industry Development Service Center established by provinces and cities. Up to now, 12 sub-wine regions in China have obtained the certification of geographical indication protection. Chinese wine consuming markets are divided into five groups, with huge consumption potential, and the activity of consumer market remains the top of Asia. China's wine industry integrates the three industries of grape growing, wine making and wine consumption, tourism, and cultural promotion. Such growth is in accordance with the advancement of agriculture, rural areas, and ecological protection, exhibiting sustainable development with vigor and vitality.

Power ultrasound to enhance the fermentation process of traditional Taiwanese rice wine

AbstractRice wine is a fermented product that can be distilled to produce rice spirit, which is an ingredient in several Asian dishes. The industry usually uses traditional practices for rice wine production. This study aims to evaluate the possibility of enhancing Taiwanese rice wine fermentation through the application of ultrasound as an emerging technology. In this regard, in an academic‐industrial cooperation, a commercial process was modified by incorporating a 550‐W power horn ultrasound treatment after the saccharification step. Independent parameters were sonication times of 0, 3, 6, 9, and 12 min (referred to as control, US3, US6, US9, and US12, respectively) and fermentation time (0, 2, 4, 6, qnd 8 days), and dependent parameters were total phenolic content (TPC), total acidity, alcohol content, CIE color values, pH, total acidity, electrical conductivity (EC), and refractive index (RI). The results showed that US3 provided the highest alcohol content while the physical characteristics, including pH, total acidity, EC, and RI, were not significantly different from those of the control sample. At the same time, sonication alters color values (L*, a*, b*, color intensity, and overall color changes) and TPC. Besides, US12 treatment yielded a rice wine with the highest TPC, that is, 306.77 ± 1.90 mg GAE/L sample. Therefore, sonication conditions can be optimized to achieve the desired properties such as the highest alcohol content or highest TPC. This study revealed that a relatively mild sonication process can enhance the fermentation process to achieve higher alcohol content which could be related to the stress‐response of yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and modification of fermentation medium. This can be considered an effort to contribute to sustainable development goals (SDGs) and sustainability by increasing resource efficiency. Besides, a more intense sonication resulted in a fermented product with higher amounts of bioactive compounds through the improved extraction process. According to the observations, power ultrasound is a promising pretreatment to boost the fermentation process and rice wine quality through positive effects on both brewer's yeast and fermentation substrates.Practical ApplicationsThe wine processing industry is seeking innovative approaches to enhance the fermentation yield, reduce fermentation time, and enhance the production capacity. In this sense, the results of this industrial‐academic collaborative research showed that power ultrasound has the potential to improve rice wine fermentation to meet the above‐mentioned industrial demands. This emerging technology at appropriate processing conditions enhanced the percentage of alcohol in the final product which could be considered as an approach to enhance the profit of wineries through enhancing the resource efficiency, that is, more amount of product from the same amount of raw materials. At the same time, this sonication‐based technique did not negatively affect the physicochemical properties of the rice wine. The production platform explored in this study is scalable and can be implemented at industrial levels in wineries.

Component Analysis of Ginseng Ice Wine by GC-MS and LC-MS

Component Analysis of Ginseng Ice Wine by GC-MS and LC-MS

Camelot Caves Incorporated: An Instructional Case*

ABSTRACTThe case asks you to prepare a report and presentation to the shareholders of Camelot Caves Incorporated (CCI), a privately held winery located in Niagara‐on‐the‐Lake, Ontario, Canada. CCI has approached your firm to assist them in setting a new direction for the company. The shareholders need to make critical decisions about the company's operations, but they cannot seem to agree. You must obtain an understanding of CCI's current vision and mission, strategic position, and financial situation before analyzing the strategic fit and quantitative and qualitative implications of the alternatives under consideration—including the addition of a new distribution channel, the opening of a restaurant, and the production of ice wine—and considering the impact of your recommendations on the value of the business and its cash position. The case will allow you to integrate a number of issues faced by a small business seeking growth through evaluating strategic and operational issues and providing recommendations.

Contribution of non-Saccharomyces yeasts to aroma-active compound production, phenolic composition and sensory profile in Chinese Vidal icewine

To acquire candidate non-Saccharomyces strains for preparation of high-quality Vidal icewine, 11 representative indigenous non-Saccharomyces strains were selected for analyzing their production of organic acids, phenolic compounds, aroma-active compounds and evaluating their sensory profile in Vidal juice. The results showed that the contents of organic acids in the wines were controlled and balanced well by the non-Saccharomyces strains as well as polyphenol concentrations were well improved during the fermentation. The strains differed from each other in their ability to produce aroma compounds, causing diversity and complexity of aroma characteristics in wine. Fermentation by Saccharomycopsis crataegensis YC30 (Sc) and Hanseniaspora uvarum QTX22 (Hu) could enhance the sweet and floral notes in Vidal icewine, especially Sc, which has never been reported before. It can not only enrich the aroma categories, but also increase the content of δ-decalactone, γ-decalactone, ethyl isobutyrate, ethyl butyrate, phenethyl acetic acid, etc. The evaluation and optimization of non-Saccharomyces yeast strains could provide theoretical basis for the improvement of ice wine quality, and supply new ideas and strategies for the brewing of ice wine.

Effects of harvest dates on microbial communities of ice grape skins from Xinjiang of China

Ice wine is a sweet dessert wine made from pressing grapes naturally frozen on the vines. The structure and metabolic characteristics of native microbial community dominated by organics and nutrients transformation in fermenting process of ice wine on the grape skin are likely to change due to climate events. Our objective was to evaluate the influence of harvest time on structure and metabolic characteristics of bacterial and fungal communities on Vidal ice grape surface. Vidal grape samples were picked between October and December in 2018; Harvest 1 (VG1): 14 October; Harvest 2 (VG2): 16 November; Harvest 3 (VG3): 18 December. Vishniacozyma, Alternaria, Cladosporium, Stenotrophomonas, unidentified_Cyanobacteria and Sphingomonas existed in all harvest dates and were the main genera widespread in most grape samples from the three harvest periods. Saprotrophic fungi and bacteria involved in metabolism were also dominant. For fungi, wood saprotrophs and unidentified saprotrophs were detected comprising Phoma, Didymella, Filobasidium and Clavaria. Delayed harvest of ice grapes has a distinct advantage for pathogen reduction compared with that of normally harvested grapes. Among bacteria, the most frequently occurring types in the metabolism category were energy metabolism, carbohydrate metabolism and lipid metabolism. In short, the harvest period can positively regulate the function of Vidal ice grape epidermal microorganisms.

Effect of Different Clarification Treatments on the Volatile Composition and Aromatic Attributes of 'Italian Riesling' Icewine.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of clarification treatments on volatile composition and aromatic attributes of wine samples. ‘Italian Riesling’ icewines from the Hexi Corridor Region of China were clarified by fining agents (bentonite (BT) and soybean protein (SP)), membrane filtration (MF), and centrifugation (CF) methods. The clarity, physicochemical indexes, volatile components, and aromatic attributes of treated wines were investigated. Both the fining agents and mechanical clarification treatments increased the transmittance and decreased the color intensity of icewine samples. Bentonite fining significantly influenced the total sugar content, total acidity and volatile acidity. Total acidity decreased 2–3.5% and volatile acidity 2–12%. MF showed the greatest influence on total phenol content, decreasing the initial content by 12%, while other treatments by less than 8%. Volatile analysis indicated that both the categories and contents of volatile compounds of wine samples decreased. MF treatment showed the most significant influence, while SP fining showed much lower impact. Odor activity values indicated the compound with the highest odor activity in Italian Riesling icewines was β-damascenone. For this compound, BT and SP did not show significant differences, however, in MF and CF it decreased by 20% and 63%, respectively. Furthermore, with high impact on aroma were: ethyl hexanoate which reduced by 20–80% especially in MF; rose oxide which extremely reduced in MF and undetected in BT, SP, and CF; isoamyl acetate which reduced by 3–33% and linalool decreased by 10–20% and undetected for BT. Principle component analysis indicated that icewine clarified by different methods could be distinguished and positively correlated with odor-active compounds. Floral and fruity were the dominant aroma series in icewine samples followed by fatty, earthy, spicy, vegetative and pungent flavor. The total odor active value of these series significantly (p < 0.5) decreased in different clarification treatments. Sensory evaluation showed similar results, but the SP and CF wine samples achieved better sensory quality. This study provides information that could help to optimize the clarification of ice wines.

Analysis of the assortment of ice wine in online stores in Ukraine

Unbalanced structure of the assortment leads to the decrease in the level of proft, loss of the competitive position of enterprises, including wine ones, in promising markets. In the conditions of the modern wine market, there is a tendency to increase consumer influence on the formation of the assortment range of wineries, focusing on wines with original consumer properties, in particular ice. Ice wine is a rare wine of a special type, the technology of which involves the use of non-classical methods of processing grapes. Therefore, ice wine is characterized by original consumer properties leading to increased interestamong consumers who increasingly use distance means of buying goods.In this regard, in this article the monitoring of the ice wine assortment was conducted, which is presented on the sites of Ukrainian online stores, both general retail and specialized wine networks.Coefcient estimation methods were used to evaluate the assortment of ice wines based on comparison with the benchmark system. According to the results of the study, the low coefcients of breadth and depth of ice wine assortment presented in the onlinestoresin Ukraine were obtained. It was determined that most ice wines are wines of foreign producers made from Riesling grapes. The Rozetka online store has the entire list of ice wines on sale, but the largest assortment of ice wines from around the world is not available for orders on the website of the specialized wine online store Wine Style. It should be noted that not a single position of ice wine was found in the online stores of Ukrainian grocery retail chains. Therefore, the subsequent formation of an assortment of ice wines is an urgent task, which will allow us to correctly propose effective methods to increase the competitiveness of ice wines on the Ukrainian retail market. It was determined that most ice wines are wines of foreign producers made from Riesling grapes. The Rozetka online store has the entire list of ice wines on sale, but the largest assortment of ice wines from around the world is not available for orders on the website of the specialized wine online store Wine Style. It should be noted that not a single position of ice wine was found in the online stores of Ukrainian grocery retail chains. Therefore, the subsequent formation of an assortment of ice wines is an urgent task, which will allow us to correctly propose effective methods to increase the competitiveness of ice wines on the Ukrainian retail market. Key words: assortment, market, online store, ice wine, depth ofassortment, breadth of assortment.

Microbial community composition and its role in volatile compound formation during the spontaneous fermentation of ice wine made from Vidal grapes

Vidal grape grown in Ili, Xinjiang Autonomous Region, is one of few grapes used to ferment ice wine in China. Microbial community structure and volatile composition during the spontaneous fermentation of ice wine made from Vidal grapes in Ili were investigated using amplicon sequencing technology and headspace solid-phase microextraction/gas chromatography-mass spectrometer technologies. Among bacterial genera, Sphingobium, Pseudomonas and Sphingomonas gradually decreased, while Lactobacillus and Streptococcus increased during the spontaneous fermentation process. As regards fungi, the relative abundance of Vishniacozymaand Cladosporium reduced, but Hanseniaspora sharply raised. Additionally, correlations between microbes and volatile compounds were constructed based on multivariate data analysis. The results revealed that the functional core microbiota (mainly composed of eight bacterial genera and nine fungal genera) during ice wine fermentation showed considerable correlations with the formation of twenty-four volatile compounds in ice wine made from Vidal grapes. For example, Saccharomyces was positively correlated with ethanol, ethyl acetate and isoamylol; Hanseniaspora and Candidawere negatively correlated with hexanol; and Lactobacillus and Streptococcus were positively correlated with 2,3-butanediol, ethanol, ethyl acetate, isoamylol and isoamyl acetate. This studyprovides a reference for understanding the process of ice wine fermentation and improving the quality of ice wine made from Vidal grapes.

A limited metabolomics analysis validates sonication-assisted extraction of Ice Wine grape pomace polyphenols and demonstrates their seasonal variation

Plant polyphenols have received a great deal of attention for their putative health-promoting effects. Grapes are a dietary source of polyphenols such as resveratrol, quercetin, catechin, and delphinidin. These compounds are particularly plentiful in the skins and seeds pomace) of grape berries. The levels of some polyphenols, like resveratrol, have been reported to increase in late fall and early winter. Here we developed a rapid and simple bath sonication-based method for extracting polyphenols from the pomace of Vidal and Cabernet Franc grapes into a 1.5% aqueous solution of beta-cyclodextrin (BCD). BCD is an inexpensive and generally recognized as safe food additive that is widely used in food manufacturing. Using a limited metabolomics approach, the levels of 28 individual polyphenols in these extracts were determined. We demonstrate a yield of 1.30–3.18 µg resveratrol per mg lyophilized extract from Cabernet Franc berries harvested between November and January. In addition, the extraction protocol developed yields measurable levels of polydatin, quercetin, catechin, delphinidin, and other polyphenols. The levels of many of these polyphenols vary significantly between November, December, and January based on data from 2015, 2016, and 2017. In summary, we demonstrate an efficacious method for extracting polyphenols from waste winter grape pomace that yields a wide range of polyphenols in an edible extract form and show how the levels of these polyphenols varies from November to January.

Novel insights into microbial community dynamics during the fermentation of Central European ice wine

Culture-dependent and culture-independent strategies were applied to investigate the microbiota of autumn undamaged and damaged berries, winter berries and ice wine must samples of Grüner Veltliner (Veltlínske zelené) from Small Carpathian wine-producing region. One hundred twenty-six yeasts and 242 bacterial strains isolated from several microbiological media (YPD, PDA, R2A, GYC, MRS and MRS-T) were clustered by ITS-PCR and subsequent Qiaxcel electrophoresis. Representatives of each cluster were identified by sequencing. The extracellular hydrolytic properties and intracellular activities of esterase and β-glucosidase of isolates were assayed. The culture-independent approach permitted the analysis of extracted DNA and RNA coupling DGGE fingerprinting with construction of clone libraries (bacterial and fungal; DGGE-cloning). The combination of the two approaches provided comprehensive data that evidenced the presence of a complex microbiota in each analyzed sample. RNA and DNA analyses facilitated differentiation of living microorganisms from the entire microbiota. Diverse microbial communities colonized the autumn and winter berries. Generally, the combination of results obtained by the methods suggested that the must samples contained mainly Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Metschnikowia spp., Hanseniaspora uvarum, Lactococcus lactis and Leuconostoc spp. The strains exhibited interesting esterase and β-glucosidase properties, which are important for aroma formation in wine. Fermentation strategies utilising these microorganisms, could be attempted in the future in order to modulate the ice wine characteristics.

The Impact of Wine Style and Sugar Addition in liqueur d’expedition (dosage) Solutions on Traditional Method Sparkling Wine Composition

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of wine style and cane sugar addition in the liqueur d’expedition (dosage) solution on volatile aroma compounds (VOCs) in traditional method sparkling wine. There were 24 bottles of each treatment produced. Treatments were sparkling wine zero dosage (ZD); NV sparkling wine + sugar (BS); unoaked still Chardonnay wine + sugar (UC); Pinot noir 2009 sparkling wine + sugar (PN); Niagara produced Brandy + sugar (B) and Icewine (IW). The control treatment in the sensory analysis was an oaked still Chardonnay wine + sugar (OC) because the zero-dosage wine was not suitable for a difference test that compared wines with sugar to one without. Standard wine chemical parameters were analysed before disgorging and after liqueur d’expedition was added and included; pH, titratable acidity (TA g/L), alcohol (v/v %), residual sugar (RS g/L), free and total SO2 and total phenolics (A.U.). Volatile aroma compounds (VOCs) analysed by Headspace Solid- Phase Micro-Extraction Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (HS-SPME-GC-MS) included two alcohols, and six ethyl esters. ZD wines had the highest foam height and highest dissolved oxygen level. Sugar affected VOC concentrations in all treatments at five weeks post-disgorging, but by 15 weeks after liqueur d’expedition addition, the wine with added sugar had similar VOC concentrations to the ZD wines. The type of wines used in the dosage solutions had more influence on VOC concentrations than sugar addition.

Policy Suggestions for the Industrialization of Ice Wine in Gangwon Province

This study was conducted to determine the effects of silver thiosulfate (STS) and 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP) on flower opening and lifespan of potted Kalanchoe blossfeldiana ‘Oriba’ for exportation. Ethylene inhibitors, STS and 1-MCP were applied to the kalanchoe plants prior to their export to Japan. STS 0.5 mM with 1% Tween 20 surfactant was directly sprayed (20 ㎖ per plant) to leaves, buds, and flowers and 1-MCP 100 nL?l?¹ was injected into sealed glass chambers containing kalanchoe plants, which were placed on the chambers for 6 hours. After transport to Japan, the plants were immediately transferred to a simulated retail condition room (80 μ㏖ㆍ?²ㆍs?¹ for 12 hours of photoperiod at 22℃ and 64% RH) at Toyko University. The numbers of buds, open florets, and wilted florets in the middle inflorescence for each plant were counted right after export, 1 week after export, and 6 weeks after export. The percentages of open florets and wilted florets were calculated from the numbers. STS treatment resulted in 35% more open florets than the control and only 11% of wilted florets at 6 weeks after export to Japan which indicate the extension of lifespan of potted kalanchoe plants. Meanwhile, the plants exposed to 1-MCP before export did not show any significant differences in the numbers of buds and open florets and the percentages of open and wilted florets compared to control plants. In conclusion, STS 0.5 mM treatment strikingly induced better opening florets and lifespan of kalanchoe plants from 1 week to 6 weeks after export than control.

Determinants of Wineries’ Decisions to Seek VQA Certification in the Canadian Wine Industry

AbstractThe establishment of quality assurance systems is an important development in the wine sector, particularly so for new and emerging wine regions. Focusing on the Canadian wine industry, this article examines the determinants of a winery's decision to adopt Vintners Quality Alliance (VQA) certification for wines. The analysis also examines whether wineries seek VQA certification for higher-priced wines or whether VQA certification leads to higher wine prices. To examine the certification decision, a probit model is applied to a detailed data set of Canadian wines sold in Ontario over the period 2007–2012. Wines from wineries that supply large volumes of wines (more than 1,000 cases) are more likely to have VQA certification, as well as ice wines and wines from specific regions. A Hausman specification test for endogeneity suggests that VQA certification leads to higher wine prices and not the other way around. (JEL Classifications: D22, L15, L66, Q13)

Analysis of market current state and historical roots of ice wine production

Number of ice wine companies is increasing every year due to unique chemical composition and consumer demand. Unfortunately, processes associated with outputs of exclusive wines are examined only by Canadian winemakers in scientific literature. Despite of the strict requirements in non-classic technology that largely influence on obtaining of frozen grapes in winter season, other companies and wineries have included ice wine to their product offering. This study surveyed comprehensive information related to first ice wine producers and present definition of rare wine production that are the objectives of current research. Thus, data about primary frozen vintages, wine regions in each producing country and famous winemakers had influenced the expanding of dessert special styles were described; differences in the titles wines were shown. After the experience of the Germans in winter technology, other countries also began to introduce the wine of the premium segment. The current state of production and the wineries, which produce special wine, were reviewed and enterprises developed winter technologies were highlighted in the North America, Europe and Asia. Placement of the wineries, their number and ranges of ice wine were represented and argued according to agro-climatic conditions of each producing lands. T he entire world situation referring the existing of ice wine producers in the main regions of European and other territories supplemented special beverages to their profiles suggesting by our study afford an opportunity to fully understand the significant centres of production and changes in wine market supply. Furthermore, current research can conduce to the further publications of ice wine data compositions from different producing areas to evaluating of sensory and physical-chemical parameters and, perhaps, to find the solutions of challenges in ice wine production considering the experiences of each countries.

Aroma characterization of predicate wines from Croatia

Predicate wines are sweet natural wines that in good years and appropriate conditions of ripening grapes on the vine, their degree of overripe and time of harvest, achieve a special quality. The aroma compounds of predicate wines from Croatia have not yet been studied. The predicate commercial wines (selected harvest wines and ice wines) of four different grape cultivars (‘Welschriesling’, ‘Kerner’, ‘Gewurztraminer’, ‘Chardonnay’) more than 10 years old were examined by GC–MS. Aroma compounds were extracted by solid-phase extraction. The results show that during ageing, sotolon and furfural concentrations are increased. Generally, higher concentrations of 1-octen-3-ol were noticed in selected harvest wines what may be connected with the metabolic activity of Botrytis cinerea. Linalool, β-damascenone, α-ionone, β-ionone, γ-nonalactone, sotolon, cis-rose oxide and 1-octen-3-ol had the greatest contribution to the overall aroma composition (odour activity value OAV ˃1). These results increase the understanding of aroma composition and the influence of ageing on selected harvest white wines and ice wines.

Phenolic and Chromatic Properties of Beibinghong Red Ice Wine during and after Vinification.

The phenolic and chromatic characteristics of a special red ice wine made from a Vitis amurensis × V. vinifera hybrid cultivar Beibinghong were studied. Results from two different vintages (2013 and 2014) showed that during vinification, the phenolic acid content increased, while the level of flavonoids (flavonols, flavan-3-ols, and anthocyanins) reduced by a variable extent. The color intensity and red % decreased together with a decrease in anthocyanin content. This was accompanied by an increase in hue as well as yellow %. The final phenolic content was found to be between 119.54 and 180.93 mg/L, with anthocyanins as the predominant phenolic group (92.06%–93.03%), of which 3,5-O-diglucosidic anthocyanins made up 53.55%–79.04%. Phenolic acids were the primary non-anthocyanin phenolics at about 6.64%–7.5%. The phenolic contents and color parameters of Beibinghong dry red wine and several V. vinifera dry red wines of superior color quality were also used in an attempt to clarify the relationship between phenolics and color in the Beibinghong red ice wine. By using Pearson correlation analysis and principal component analysis (PCA), it was found that 3,5-O-diglucosidic anthocyanins and protocatechuic acid were the only characteristic phenolics that differentiated Beibinghong wines from the other selected red wines from more traditional varieties. They were also the main phenolics to be positively correlated with the hue and yellow % of the wine at the early stages leading into maturation. Their presence might, therefore, explain the relatively high hue and yellow % of Beibinghong ice wine.