Hydrostatic Energy Research Articles

A numerical study to discriminate between the hydrostatic and deviatoric strain energies impact on cells activity during bone remodelling

Bone remodelling is regulated by specific cellular activities. In particular, the osteocytes are able to transform a mechanical signal into a chemical one and transmit it to the osteoclasts and osteoblasts cells. Additionally, osteocytes are more sensitive to fluid shear than pressure stress. Thus, the mechanical environment, especially the type of external loads applied to the bone structure, may highly influence its evolution over time. In this paper we propose a strain energy based model in which we distinguish between the deviatoric and hydrostatic energy contributions. We study here simple loads and geometries for which the strain energy distribution is homogeneous. From these two cases, we are able to show that when considering more complex structures such as the bone microstructure where the energy distribution is heterogeneous, it is necessary to discriminate between the deviatoric and hydrostatic energy parts.

A triboelectric nanogenerator based on a spiral rotating shaft for efficient marine energy harvesting of the hydrostatic pressure differential

Equipment used in underwater sensing and exploration typically relies on cables or batteries for energy supply, resulting in a limited and inconvenient energy supply and marine environmental pollution that hinder the sustainable development of distributed ocean sensing networks. Here, we design a deep-sea differential-pressure triboelectric nanogenerator (DP-TENG) based on a spiral shaft drive using modified polymer materials to harness the hydrostatic pressure gradient energy at varying ocean depths to power underwater equipment. The spiral shaft structure converts a single compression into multiple rotations of the TENG rotor, achieving efficient conversion of differential pressure energy. The multi-pair electrode design enables the DP-TENG to generate a peak current of 61.7 μA, the instantaneous current density can reach 0.69 μA cm−2, and the output performance can be improved by optimizing the spiral angle of the shaft. The DP-TENG can charge a 33 μF capacitor to 17.5 V within five working cycles. It can also power a digital calculator and light up 116 commercial power light-emitting diodes, demonstrating excellent output capability. With its simple structure, low production cost, and small form factor, the DP-TENG can be seamlessly integrated with underwater vehicles. The results hold broad prospects for underwater blue energy harvesting and are expected to contribute to the development of self-powered equipment toward emerging “smart ocean” and blue economy applications.

Finite element implementation of Field Crack Mechanics for brittle and ductile fracture

In this work, a Finite Element (FE) implementation of a Field Crack Mechanics (FCM) model is presented for the first time. The implementation includes general boundary conditions and application to bulk plasticity as well. The current numerical investigation adopts the standard Galerkin finite element formulation to solve the equation of linear momentum balance and finite difference framework for crack evolution. Our preliminary investigation includes the modes-I and II loading conditions, where their respective normal stress fields are compared against their analytical counterparts. The fundamental questions in classical fracture mechanics, e.g. the existence of threshold stress for the crack to move, and various stages associated with the crack propagation are investigated. Additionally, this study explores two distinct strain energy functions based on the crack surface normal and hydrostatic deviatoric energy split. Crack irreversibility is a natural phenomenon in the FCM model, and it does not require satisfying any extra irreversibility constraints. The model shows good agreement against literature and analytical framework. The current FCM implementation also recovers the basic notion of fracture propagation which satisfies both energy and stress criterion. The study also explores the crack motion under the effect of plasticity in ductile materials. The results thus obtained for both brittle and ductile fracture cases are consistent with the predictions of classical fracture mechanics. The current implementation of the FCM effectively demonstrates stable crack propagation, eliminating the requirement for surfing boundary conditions.

On the origin of Sanchez-Lacombe equation of state theory in hydrostatic strain energy model for rubber-like materials

To capture the volume deformation of rubber-like materials, the strain energy density (SED) function of a compressible hyperelastic model is formulated as the hydrostatic/liquid-like term from interchain interaction changes plus the compressible elastic term owing to elastic deformation of crosslinking network. Notably, the former term dominates volume responses. Although the physics of the hydrostatic term is relatively clear, to our knowledge, few physically-based models are available. However, in our previous work (Liu and Lu, 2023), we constructed a physically-based hydrostatic SED function inspired by the Flory-Orwoll-Vrij equation of state (EOS) theory for pure polymer fluids, and proposed the general strategy for developing hydrostatic functions according to the EOS theories. Sanchez-Lacombe EOS theory (note: a type of lattice-fluid EOS theory) inspired this work. We assume: (i) a rubber-like material consists of polymer segments occupying lattice sites and unoccupied/vacant lattice sites, and the compressibility of the material corresponds to changes in vacant sites fraction; (ii) the hydrostatic strain energy is associated with the interchain interaction energy change and the mixing entropy change between network and vacant sites. According to the Helmholtz free energy in Sanchez-Lacombe EOS theory and limiting our attention to the isothermal condition, another physically-based hydrostatic SED function is constructed; a specific compressible hyperelastic model is provided by further combining compressible 8-chain elastic SED function. The basic framework of this compressible model is inherently consistent with the Flory-Rehner framework for swollen elastomers. Our model provides good predictions for volume deformation data of ten different rubber-like materials in hydrostatic compression (HC), uniaxial tension (UT), and constrained uniaxial compression (CUC). The proposed model reveals that HC, CUC, or uniaxial compression correspond to the entropy-decreasing process and they all are controlled by entropy changes; while for UT, equibiaxial tension, or pure shear, the entropy first increases and then decreases, and the interchain interaction energy and entropy changes control the responses for initial small stretches and remaining large stretches, respectively. This study aims to provide a new physical insight and a valid physically-based hydrostatic SED function for the compressibility of rubber-like materials.

Analysis of Macroscopic Cavitation Characteristics of a Self-Excited Oscillating Cavitation Jet Nozzle

The self-excited oscillating cavitation jet nozzle (SEOCJN) serves as a crucial component for converting hydrostatic energy into dynamic pressure energy and ensuring optimal hydraulic and cavitation performance of cavitating jets. Thus, it is of crucial significance to understand the cavitation characteristics and the influence law of SEOCJN for its extensive industrial applications. This paper utilizes numerical simulation methods to analyze the dynamic process of cavitation initiation, development, and outlet cavitation performance of SEOCJN. It explores the effects of inlet pressure and flow rate on the frequency characteristics of SEOCJN, and establishes a mathematical relationship between self-excited oscillation frequency and outlet flow frequency. The results indicate that the self-excited oscillation nozzle has an inlet diameter (D1) of 4.7 mm, an outlet diameter (D2) of 12.2 mm, a length (L) of 52 mm, a chamber diameter (D) of 83 mm, an oscillation angle of 120°, and an inlet pressure (Pin) of 4.8 MPa. At these parameters, the frequency of the pulse jet reaches 830.01 Hz, with an internal flow period of approximately 0.0024 s. The maximum vapor volume fraction is found to be located 0.28 m from the outlet of the SEOCJN. Furthermore, the frequency of self-excited oscillation pulse increases with an increase in inlet pressure. These findings provide a theoretical basis for the industrial application of self-excited oscillation cavitation jet nozzles.

A physically-based hydrostatic strain energy model for rubber-like materials inspired by Flory-Orwoll-Vrij equation of state theory

In a compressible hyperelastic model for rubber-like materials, the strain energy function is generally composed of the hydrostatic part corresponding to changes in interchain interactions and the compressible elastic part attributable to the network structure. It is well known that the hydrostatic part dominates the compressibility of the material. In this study, inspired by the Flory-Orwoll-Vrij (FOV) equation of state (EOS) theory for pure polymer liquids (note: a cell-like EOS theory), we assume that (i) the compressibility of rubber-like materials corresponds to changes in free volume of polymer chain segments; (ii) the hydrostatic strain energy of a rubber-like solid is attributable to changes in interchain interaction energy and chain segments’ external motion degrees of freedom (the latter solely depends on interchain forces). With a focus on the reversible isothermal deformation process, we construct a physically-based hydrostatic strain energy function based on the Helmholtz free energy formulation in FOV EOS theory. With a view towards applications, we provide a specific compressible hyperelastic model by incorporating the new hydrostatic strain energy function and compressible eight-chain model, where the latter is utilized as the elastic part of the strain energy function. Our model is capable of predicting various volume data of rubber-like materials from the literature, such as the nonlinear pressure-volume response at finite volume changes in hydrostatic compression (HC), the volume change-stretch and stress-stretch data in uniaxial tension (UT), and the stress-volume data in constrained uniaxial compression (CUC). Given the severely limited volume change data for finite stretches in UT and other modes of deformation, we simulate the volume change-volume modulus-stretch responses in UT, equibiaxial tension (ET), pure shear (PS), and uniaxial compression (UC) over their respective theoretical range of stretch and successfully predict some available (qualitative) experimental observations. Together with the simulations of the volume change-stretch responses in UT, ET, PS, and UC based on the Ogden’s and Bischoff et al.’s compressible models, we summarize the characteristics of these responses and analyze the possible deformation mechanisms. These simulations can provide some guidance for future corresponding experiments. Finally, we analyze the deformation mechanisms of HC, CUC, UT, ET, PS, and UC by simulating the responses for total strain energy and its components. This study provides a new physical picture and corresponding theoretical model for the hydrostatic strain energy function of rubber-like materials and finally proposes the general research strategy for constructing new hydrostatic strain energy functions based on the EOS theories for pure polymer liquids.

Combining experimental and modelling approaches to understand the expansion of lattice parameter of epitaxial SrTi1-xTaxO3 (x = 0–0.1) films

Cubic SrTiO3 is widely used as a model perovskite oxide due to its exotic optical, electronic, magnetic, superconducting, and ferroelectric properties, which are dominantly influenced by its lattice parameter. This paper reports on the experimental observation of Ta5+ dopant-induced expansion of the perpendicular lattice parameter (a⊥) of (001) heteroepitaxial SrTixTa1-xO3 (x = 0–0.1) films grown at substrate temperature (Tg) of 750 °C under 5 × 10-5 mbar oxygen partial pressure (pO2). The experimental results demonstrate the synthesis of very high-quality epitaxial thin films in which almost all the Ta5+ dopants are substituted. However, not all the carriers are activated due to compensating defects. All these films have smooth surfaces and are stoichiometric in compositions. The value of a⊥ increases linearly with increasing Ta or free carrier concentrations. This expansion is modelled via density functional theory (DFT). The influences of three effects are considered in the present modelling: (i) ionic radius of Ta dopant (ii) deformation potential due to hydrostatic strain energy (iii) concentration of free carrier. Further calculations of a⊥ are also performed by considering the influence of substrate and the results overestimate the experimental values by ∼ 1 %. Further experiments on other perovskite systems are required to establish the efficacy of these modelling approaches.

Design of Test Equipment for Hydrostatic Transducers and Hydraulic Fluids

The article refers to the proposed test equipment used to monitor the service life of hydrostatic transducers and fluids under constant or dynamic operating pressure loading. The proposed laboratory test equipment enables simultaneous testing of hydrostatic transducers and energy carriers in two hydraulic circuits and is designed to measure the flow characteristics and technical life of hydrostatic transducers with different energy carriers. The benefit of the proposed device is the possibility of simultaneous testing of the transducers as well as the performance of verification measurements of individual circuits, which was preceded by the development of a theoretical design. This includes the calculations necessary to determine the power of the drive, the cooling power as well as the definition of other parameters and elements of the hydraulic system. The design of the device was based on technical characteristics, load characteristics obtained by own measurements, and characteristics of individual hydraulic and electrohydraulic elements. On the basis of the prepared laboratory test equipment, it is possible to significantly shorten the time of operational tests and perform repeated tests under the same operational load with different types of energy carriers. The hydraulic circuit (primary or secondary) can be loaded through a proportional electrohydraulic pressure valve, which is able to simulate the load with the operational pressure curve obtained by measurement, as well as the cyclic stress, the frequency, amplitude, and rate of increase of which can be defined according to the selected methodology. A verification measurement of the flow characteristics of the used transducers was also carried out, which confirmed the correct function and design of the test laboratory equipment. The achieved results can be used in mechanical engineering for the accelerated life test of hydrostatic transducers, which are often used in mobile energy devices working in environmentally sensitive areas. The proposed laboratory test equipment will be used for testing ecological energy carriers, increasing the efficiency of energy conversion in agricultural facilities using biomass.

A data-driven analytical roadmap to a sustainable 2030 in South Korea based on optimal renewable microgrids

Combined technological, economic, sociological, and environmental (TESE) models can play a unique role in leveraging renewable energies and supporting sustainable development. Yet, a multi-aspect TESE model has never been used in Korea to adapt to climate change through sustainable energy policies. This comprehensive TESE study addresses several sustainability challenges in the Korean energy sector. First, demand electricity is predicted using four deep and stacked neural networks to develop a smart demand-based model. Second, optimal hybrid renewable microgrids (HRMGs) are simulated at 17 sites to evaluate five renewable energy sources in three scenarios. Third, hybrid assessment results are clustered using a K-means algorithm to generate hybrid renewable energy maps for South Korea. Fourth, the TESE model is analyzed with more than 13 variables using a cascading multi-criteria decision-making approach to prorate a budget and develop a prioritized roadmap for a sustainable 2030 in Korea. Fifth, a stochastic linear mathematical model is developed to propose a sustainable energy policy that considers the water-energy-carbon nexus. The results show that a convolutional neural network can efficiently predict sequential demand electricity (R2 = 98.79%), with respective biogas, solar, hydrostatic, wind, and hydrokinetic energy fractions of 45.7%, 34.5%, 14%, 5.78%, and 0.01% under optimal conditions in Korea. The present free market-based policies are recommended to be revised in favor of domestic production of renewable energy facilities if new jobs can be created for more than $7500 each, and the carbon penalty cost can be kept below $83/ton CO2-eq in Korea.

Multiaxial fatigue life prediction model based on an improved strain energy density criterion

Based on the critical plane approach and the shear damage model, a new damage parameter based on the strain energy density criterion is proposed. This parameter takes into account the interaction between shear stress and hydrostatic stress during microcrack initiation and the contribution of hydrostatic strain energy density to fatigue damage. On this basis, a new multiaxial fatigue life prediction model is established by combining the Basquin-Manson-Coffin equation. The analysis results of five metal materials show that the predicted life correlated well with the experimental observations. The merits of the proposed model are further highlighted by the comparison between the results of the proposed method and those of two fatigue damage prediction models.

Design of Bacterial Foraging Interval Fuzzy Logic Controller on Hybrid Solar Tracker-Ocean Wave Energy Converter

The location of Indonesia which, is crossed by the equator, makes it rich in sunlight. Photovoltaic (PV) can convert solar energy into electrical energy. The Solar Tracker system can maximize the absorption of solar energy that enters the PV. The condition of the Indonesian archipelago also has the potential for ocean wave energy. The Hydrostatic transmission-based Wave Energy Converter system can convert ocean wave energy into electrical energy. This research combines two energies, namely solar energy and ocean waves. The importance of combining these two renewable energies is due to the non-continuous nature of solar energy, therefore combined with the ocean wave energy to maximize the energy produced. A type-2 fuzzy logic control system based on Bacterial Foraging Optimization (BFO) is applied to each converter, summing each converter that has been optimizing. Optimize error and delta error on the solar tracker system and fuzzy logic waveform-based sea-wave type-2 system. The fuzzy boundaries are then optimized using the BFO optimization method. Fuzzy type-2 based on BFO in solar tracking system can increase energy by 67.9% with the best performance at FOU ±0.1. BFO-based type-2 fuzzy control can stabilize the output of the ocean wave conversion system and produce average energy of 34.48 Wh. This research can increase the energy in the system after being optimized using BFO by 19.3%.

Pressure drop analysis for the droplet break-up flow in a locally constrictive microchannel

Locally constrictive microchannels are effective components to implement droplet break-up in microfluidic processes. We herein report an experimental study of droplet break-up flow based on pressure drop analysis. The time varying pressure drops were recorded by a self-assembled experimental platform with measurement accuracy of 1 Pa, and the variations of those pressure drops were in accord with the fluctuations of capillary pressure. Fourier transform was then employed to analyze the droplet break-up behaviors and confirm the numbers of daughter droplets instead of traditional microscopic imaging method. With the guidance of the pressure drop analysis, the effects of crucial factors such as surfactant concentration, fluid flow rate, and fluid viscosity on droplet break-up were investigated. The additional hydrostatic energy cost for droplet stretching and deformation in the constriction was finally discussed in contrast to the increase of interfacial energy, which were both confirmed on the level of 10−8 J/droplet.

An energy-based model to assess multiaxial fatigue damage under tension-torsion and tension-tension loadings

A new energy-based fatigue life prediction model is proposed for arbitrary multiaxial constant loadings in this paper. First, a brief review for existing multiaxial fatigue models is given, especially focusing on energy-based models. It is observed that most multiaxial model formulation and validation are suitable for axial-torsional loadings, but may not be appropriate for biaxial tension-tension loading. One possible reason is the ignorance of hydrostatic stress-state difference under these two types of loadings. In view of this, a new model is proposed by including fatigue damage contributions of equivalent tensile energy, torsional energy, and hydrostatic energy. Next, a loading transformation is proposed to transfer a complicated three-dimensional loading to an effective loading for life prediction. Detailed discussion of different types of multiaxial loading and its relationship with the ratio of distortional energy and dilatational energy is given. The hysteresis energy can be calculated integrating the proposed model with the Garud cyclic plastic model, which is directly linked to the damage accumulation and fatigue life prediction. The proposed model is validated with extensive experimental data under both tension-torsion loadings and biaxial tension-tension loadings from open literature. Comparison with several widely used multiaxial model is also given to show the model performance with respect to different biaxial tension-tension loadings. Finally, concluding remarks and future work based on the investigated materials are discussed.

Experiment study of a seawater hydrostatic energy conversion rig

The seawater's hydrostatic energy is an alternative power source for seafloor operation apparatus, such as the sediment sampler, cone penetration test rig and long-term platform for underwater sensors. A seawater hydrostatic energy conversion rig which is proposed to harness the seawater hydrostatic energy to drive the seafloor sediment sampler and seabed cone penetration test rig was built and tested in lab. The test system of the energy conversion rig in lab can properly simulate the seawater hydrostatic energy and the fluctuating sediment resistance. Under the great influence of the fluctuating resistance, the rig can hold stable speed and attain high energy efficiency at different depth of water. The speed error is very small during the test and is within ±10% of the stable speed. The feature makes the conversion rig qualified to drive the seabed cone penetration test rig and high-quality sediment sampler. The hydrostatic energy conversion efficiency of the conversion rig in different cases are all higher than 80%, which enables the sediment sampler to obtain longer sediment sample and make cone penetration test rig obtain deeper sediment's geotechnical data. The experiment results demonstrate the feasibility of the seawater hydrostatic energy conversion rig and show its excellent performance.

Investigating wintertime air pollution in Hangzhou, China

Hangzhou, one of the most prosperous cities in China, suffered from severe air quality degradation in wintertime, and the ambient atmospheric particulate matter (PM) has become the most public-concerning air pollutant. In this work, a case study in wintry Hangzhou is made, for analysis of air pollutants and prediction of PM2.5/PM10 using two machine learning models, recurrent neural network (RNN) and random forest. The results signify that statistic-based and inventory-free machine learning is competently alternative to the inventory-predicted atmospheric models. Variable importance (VI) indicates that CO was the predominant factor for both PM2.5 and PM10. Dew-point deficit played an essential role in shaping gaseous air pollutants. Water vapor pressure and hydrostatic energy had trivial impact on atmospheric pollutants. RNN and random forest both show high accuracy in predicting PM2.5 and PM10. The inter-annual consistence of PM’s components is confirmed. A method to pinpoint whether the high episodes of PM were spawned by long-range transport or increase of gaseous pollutants (SO2, NO2, and CO) is proposed. Additionally, the possible chemical bond between CO and PM needs to be further investigated.

Effect of Characteristics of Different Types of Bauxite Clinker on Adhesion

Based on the fact that bauxite clinker has minor thermal conductivity and better skid resistance and wear-resisting property, it can be used in HFST (high friction surface treatment) or the abrasion layer of asphalt mixture to replace or partly replace the existing aggregate. Bauxite clinker is classified into mainly six types according to different chemical composition contents. The selection of bauxite clinker as aggregate is not only for the economic value, but also for improving the adhesion between aggregate and asphalt, which has a certain blindness This study evaluated the characteristics of different types of bauxite clinker. The adhesion of different types of bauxite clinker with asphalt was evaluated by means of agitating hydrostatic adsorption method and surface free energy theory. The effect of characteristic parameters of bauxite clinker on adhesion was evaluated by grey correlation entropy analysis. The results show that Type B and D bauxite clinker aggregates have the best adhesion to asphalt. The outcome of grey entropy correlation analysis shows that the parameters which characterize the structural indexes of bauxite clinker, such as porosity, water absorption and apparent density, have the greatest effect on the adhesion. The results of study can provide some reference for the selection of bauxite clinker, which is used in different types of highway construction, and a theoretical reference for the applicability research of bauxite clinker in asphalt mixture and the improvement of skid resistance and durability of pavement.

A reassessment of the multiaxial ductility C* creep crack growth equation based on the strain energy integral of the HRR singular field terms

A revaluation of the upper bound plane strain multiaxial C* crack growth rates is undertaken for a range of materials. The analysis assumes that the multiaxial ductility factor can be approximated by taking the integrated dimensionless deviatoric and hydrostatic strain energy density of the HRR singular fields. Using the equivalency approximation between the plastic and elastic strain energy, a damage mechanics approach is used to determine the crack tip triaxial constraint. The new multiaxial factor was found to be independent of the power law behaviour, and for plane stress HRR fields gave a multiaxial factor of close to one. The new factor enables estimates of the upper bound crack rates under plane strain in the Nikbin Smith Webster equation to be undertaken. Creep crack growth data from nine materials were used to assess the new approximation for upper bound crack growth rates. The results suggest the current upper bound plane strain crack growth rates could be decreased from the current thirty times to three times the plane stress results for a range of materials.

A comparative study of energy performance of hydrostatic seafloor sediment samplers and a new high-efficiency sampler

The hydrostatic energy of high-pressure seawater is a renewable and green energy source for ocean exploration and have been used to replace underwater electrical energy transmission through the cable and underwater battery pack to power seafloor equipment. The advantage of the energy supply method is the cost-effective and the robustness. In the paper, the energy performance of the existing hydrostatic seafloor sediment samplers powered by seawater hydrostatic energy are modelled and analyzed and compared. In view of the common shortcoming of existing technology, a novel hydrostatic seafloor sediment sampler is proposed. The model of energy conversion of the new sampler is built, and its energy performance is obtained. The analysis results indicate that the energy conversion efficiency of the novel sediment sampler is much higher than the existing ones, which means that the new sampler can collect much longer sample with the limited amount of hydrostatic energy. The seawater hydrostatic energy conversion system of the new sampler can also be used to power other seafloor equipment.

Analysis and modelling of a novel hydrostatic energy conversion system for seabed cone penetration test rig

The energy supply is a key issue for underwater equipment used in seabed exploration, especially in deep water. The high-pressure seawater in deep water contains massive hydrostatic energy and it is a potential clean energy source. The type of energy has advantages of low cost and relatively high reliability in deep water. A novel drive system which converts seawater's hydrostatic energy to mechanical energy is proposed for seabed cone penetration test rig. The hydrostatic drive system uses variable displacement hydraulic motor and PID control method to ensure stabilization of penetration speed and high energy efficiency. The mathematical model of the drive system is built and the comprehensive analysis is conducted. The analysis results based on the real resistance data indicate that the drive system can keep the penetration speed stable when encountering severely fluctuating sediment resistance at different depth of water and achieve high energy efficiency. The mathematical model is validated by the comparison of the results of mathematical model with simulation model based on the commercial software. Because of the high efficiency, the drive system can output considerable amount of energy which is comparable to underwater large battery pack carried by present deep-water cone penetration test rig.

Dynamic Collapse of Underwater Metallic Structures – Recent Investigations: Contributions after the 2011 Murray Lecture

The Murray Lecture that was delivered in 2011 included a historical perspective on salient features of research conducted and published by Arun Shukla. A review of experimental work since the Murray Lecture is presented in this paper on the topic of imploding underwater structures. Specifically, the dynamic underwater collapse of metallic structures was studied under free-field and confined environments using novel applications of the Digital Image Correlation (DIC) technique. During these implosion experiments, the implodable volumes became unstable under hydrostatic and combined hydrostatic-explosive conditions. Moreover, there are two types of confinements explored in this paper. A semi-confinement, where a large tubular structure is open to a reservoir at one end and closed at the other end, which leads to water hammer waves on the closed end after implosions. Also, a full-confinement, where a large tubular structure is closed at both ends, which leads to limited hydrostatic potential energy during the implosion. For accurate displacement and velocity measurements of the collapsing structures, the 3D DIC technique is calibrated for underwater measurements in a small-scale setup for each experimental configuration. High-speed cameras are then used to record the dynamic implosion event while dynamic pressure transducers measure the emitted pressure pulses. The results of these experimental series show that the 3D DIC technique can be successfully used for displacement measurements of submerged objects by extracting intrinsic and extrinsic parameters using a submerged calibration grid. The implodable volume in an open-ended semi-confining structure displays a reduced collapse velocity with respect to a free-field configuration. This is primarily caused by a near-field pressure drop from the superposition of low-pressure implosion waves inside confining structure. Semi-confined implosion also exhibits high-pressure hammer pulses at the closed end. Implosions in fully confined vessels show significant reduction/delays in the implosion process due to limited energy present in the vessel. Lastly, during fully confined explosive experiments, the shock wave impact leads to structural vibrations in the implodable volume. The amplitude of these vibrations increases with higher hydrostatic pressures until the implodable volume shows an instability.