Hydrogen-induced Stress Corrosion Cracking Research Articles

An Effective Barrier Coating Technology Against Premature Bolt Failures in Underground Mines

AbstractSignificant safety and economic consequences accompany the premature failure of bolts, posing sustainability challenges for mining operations. Previous studies have indicated that hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking (HISCC), primarily influenced by microbial activities termed microbiologically influenced stress corrosion cracking (MISCC), stands as a major contributor to the premature failure of bolts in underground mines. Presently, an effective mechanism to mitigate these premature failures is lacking. In this study, multiple commercially available coatings undergo testing to assess their susceptibility and suitability in preventing HISCC and MISCC. Additionally, a purpose-developed coating is examined. The results reveal that the tested commercially available coatings either fail to prevent these types of corrosion or are unsuitable for the intricate conditions within underground mines. The laboratory results show the coating has a significant anti-acidic corrosion and anti-MISCC performance. Conversely, the coating formulated in this study successfully averts both MISCC and HISCC, proving its applicability within the complex geological environments prevalent in mines. This breakthrough offers a promising solution to mitigate premature bolt failures in complex underground geological environments. The developed coating presents a viable way forward for enhancing safety, reducing economic losses, and improving the overall sustainability of mining operations.

Effects of pre-strain on hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking behavior of Q345R steel in hydrofluoric acid vapor environment

This study investigates microstructure, hydrogen diffusion properties, and stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of Q345R steel subject to pre-applied strains of 1%, 3%, and 5%. The relationship between microstructure and SCC susceptibility in hydrofluoric acid (HF) vapor is examined. It is found that pre-strain cannot change the microstructure of Q345R steel but increases dislocation density. The increasing SCC sensitivity of Q345R steel in HF vapor is associated with the dislocation density induced by pre-strain. With increasing pre-strain, dislocation density and reversible hydrogen trap increase, and interaction between hydrogen and dislocation accelerates hydrogen-induced SCC. In addition, irreversible hydrogen traps caused by high pre-strain can severely aggravate hydrogen-induced SCC, resulting in high SCC vulnerability.

Enhanced susceptibility of high-strength fastener nuts to hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking

Abstract High-strength HV-fastener sets of dimensions M48 and M64 with property class 10.9 were employed in offshore wind turbine frameworks. The M64 were used in coupling flanges within monopiles. The M48 were employed in another offshore wind farm and encountered natural weathering. In both installations, time-delayed fractures of the nuts were observed. Owing to the presence of macroscopically visible corrosion products, hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking (Hi-SCC) was established as the probable cause of failure. However, a nut fracture in a properly pre-tensioned bolt assembly is atypical since the stresses in the bolt threads are higher than those in the nuts. Based on the Hi-SCC theory, the fracture should occur at the most stressed component, which is the bolt. During the root cause analysis, extensive examinations were conducted to determine the cause of the nut fractures. The focus was on investigating whether the nut material was more prone to Hi-SCC than the bolt material. The examination program included scanning electron microscopy and energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDS) analysis of the fracture surfaces, optical microscopy of microspecimens, mechanical tests, and stress rupture tests of hydrogen-charged specimens. While the results suggest that the tested nuts comply with the requirements of the applicable standards regarding material properties, they also reveal that the nut material is, despite its lower tensile strength, significantly more susceptible to Hi-SCC than the bolt material. Therefore, a direct relationship between material susceptibility to Hi-SCC and the tensile strength, as standards and guidelines imply, is not given.

Enhanced hydrogen induced stress corrosion cracking resistance of Ni-advanced weathering steel by Ni and Mn modification

The stress corrosion cracking (SCC) behavior of three kinds of Ni-advanced weathering steel and a common weathering steel are examined in a simulated harsh marine environment by X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, electron backscattered diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, electrochemical tests, and slow strain rate tensile tests under different applied potentials. The results show that the SCC susceptibility of all test steel is low at open circuit potential. However, the SCC sensitivity of the conventional weathering steel increases significantly at − 1200 mV, while the Ni-advanced weathering steel exhibits good resistance to hydrogen embrittlement, which is attributed to the improved stacking fault energy, decrease of martensite-austenite constituents and refined grain size caused by increase in Ni and Mn content.

Study on hydrogen-induced stress corrosion of 7N01-T4 aluminum alloy for railway vehicles

Abstract 7N01-T4 aluminum alloy is widely applied to high speed train body material attributed to its excellent comprehensive mechanical properties; however, its high sensitivity to hydrogen stress corrosion would seriously restrict its further application. In this study, the hydrogen-induced stress corrosion of the base metal and the joint was investigated under slow strain rate test to ascertain the characteristics and mechanism of hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking of aluminum alloy. By applying the cathode potential, the morphology of tensile port was studied. Results show that under the action of tensile stress, the free atomic hydrogen produced in the corrosion process or absorbed hydrogen diffuses along the grain boundary into the crack tip region, weakens the grain boundary and causes hydrogen embrittlement, thus accelerating the crack propagation and fracture. These properties provide a broader prospect for the application of 7N01-T4 aluminum alloy in high-speed train body.

Damage-Sequences of Mountain Anchors

Abstract Strand anchors are a perennial problem [1]. In many instances such anchor systems have been in service for decades. Information regarding their construction, composition or manufacturer is often uncertain. In this article the damage to a number of broken strand anchors is investigated. Using relatively simple methods of investigation, it is shown that the main cause of failure encountered is hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking.

Microbiologically influenced stress corrosion cracking responsible for catastrophic failure of cable bolts

In the past two decades, reports of the premature failure of cable bolts used in the mining and civil industries have been increasing. Previous studies have established that failure occurs through hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking (HISCC), which is a type of environmentally assisted hydrogen cracking. However, to date, the cause of HISCC has been unclear. For the first time, we studied the role of microorganisms in the failure of cable bolts using components present in SCC-affected mines. Stressed coupons were prepared from the cable bolt wires and tested in groundwater with additions of sulphate-reducing bacteria, coal, clay, pyrite and lactate. It was found that hydrogen sulphide (H2S) produced by sulphate- and sulphur-reducing bacteria promoted hydrogen diffusion into the steel and, in the presence of stress, caused HISCC. This suggests that control of H2S production should be a priority for mining and civil industries to avoid premature failure of anchoring systems.

Capacity of concrete structures with corroded reinforcement and prestressing tendons

The main degradation mechanism for concrete structures is corrosion of the reinforcement and prestressing tendons. Management of structures with such degradation requires detailed understanding of their remaining strength and safety and if necessary, make a decision regarding repairs or replacement of the structure or components. Some simplified methods for estimating the residual capacity of concrete structures do exist, primarily based on a reduction of the flexural capacity equal to the percentage of the corroded area. In this paper, a more physical understanding and description of the influence of corrosion on the strength is investigated, based on a reduction of the area of the reinforcement and prestressing tendons both due to uniform corrosion and pitting corrosion. The results of these models are successfully compared to experimental results of concrete beams with corrosion. Particularly corrosion of post-tensioned tendons is a concern for concrete structures. Some disturbing examples of collapse of concrete bridges have been seen as a result of such corrosion. The paper highlights the importance of the significant strength loss of the reinforcement as a result of corrosion itself, but also the loss of ductility due to possible hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen induced stress corrosion cracking. The paper also suggests sulphate reducing bacteria as a possible explanation to corrosion issues related to corrosion of post-tensioned tendon structures where no chloride is found. The aim of the paper is to propose a method to calculate a lower bound estimate of the remaining capacity of concrete beams with corrosion damage to reinforcement and to the prestressing tendons.

Preventing failure of the anchoring system in underground coal mines

Cable bolts are commonly used as anchoring element in many underground mines. Reports on the premature failure of cable bolts in underground coal mines due to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) have been increasing in the past two decades. The previous studies found that the diffusion of atomic hydrogen into steel causes the SCC in cable bolts, which is known as hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking (HISCC). While the research on the mechanism of the HISCC in underground mines needs to be continued, it is essential to develop prevention measures to avoid such a failure. In this study, a variety of prevention measures that claim to prevent corrosion of steel were examined. Specifically, barrier coating, i.e., polymer, epoxy coating, as well as the sacrificial coating, i.e., hot-dip galvanising, methods were tested. Testing specimens were made by inserting loading pins between locked cable bolt king wires (coated) to simulate the in-situ stress condition. Cable bolt specimens were then fully immersed into a hydrogen sulphide solution to determine their resistance against HISCC. The test results showed that all the coatings had delayed the failure in varying degrees, but very few have significantly extended the time to fracturing. The polymer and epoxy coatings have become breached during the testing, and the failure occurred shortly after. The galvanised coating was dissolved in the testing solution and again allowed access of the solution to the steel surface, and subsequently resulted in failure. This indicates that these coatings can be potentially applied to prevent SCC failure; however, their impacts on the performance of bolts, such as their bonding with grout and bolt, still need to be considered.

Cathodic and Anodic Stress Corrosion Cracking of a New High-Strength CrNiMnMoN Austenitic Stainless Steel

A new high-nitrogen austenitic stainless steel with excellent mechanical properties was tested for its resistance to stress corrosion cracking. The new conventional produced hybrid CrNiMnMoN stainless steel combines the excellent mechanical properties of CrMnN stainless steels with the good corrosion properties of CrNiMo stainless steels. Possible applications of such a high-strength material are wires in maritime environments. In principle, the material can come into direct contact with high chloride solutions as well as low pH containing media. The resistance against chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking was determined by slow strain rate tests and constant load tests in different chloride-containing solutions at elevated temperatures. Resistance to hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking was investigated by precharging and ongoing in-situ hydrogen charging in both slow strain rate test and constant load test. The hydrogen charging was carried out by cathodic charging in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution with addition of 1 g/L thiourea as corrosion inhibitor and recombination inhibitor to ensure hydrogen absorption with negligible corrosive attack. Slow strain rate tests only lead to hydrogen induced stress corrosion cracking by in-situ charging, which leads to total hydrogen contents of more than 10 wt.-ppm and not by precharging alone. Excellent resistance to chloride-induced stress corrosion cracking in 43 wt.% CaCl2 at 120 °C and in 5 wt.% NaCl buffered pH 3.5 solution at 80 °C is obtained for the investigated austenitic stainless steel.

Modelling Hydrogen Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking in Austenitic Stainless Steel

ABSTRACTA model has been developed which simulates the deformation of single crystal austenitic stainless steels and captures the effects of hydrogen on stress corrosion cracking. The model is based on the crystal plasticity theory which relates critical resolved shear stress to plastic strain and the strength of the crystal. We propose an analytical representation of hydrogen interactions with the material microstructure during deformation and simulate the effects hydrogen will have on void growth prior to fracture. Changes in the mechanical properties of the crystal prior to fracture are governed by the interaction of hydrogen atoms and ensembles of dislocations as the crystal plastically deforms and is based on the hydrogen enhanced localised plasticity (HELP) mechanism. The effects of hydrogen on void growth are considered by analysing the effect of hydrogen on the mechanical property of material bounding an embedded void. The model presented has been implemented numerically using the User Material (UMAT) subroutine in the finite element software (ABAQUS) and has been validated by comparing simulated results with experimental data. Influencing parameters have been varied to understand their effect and test sensitivities.

HISCC behavior of SUS301L-MT stainless steel laser-arc hybrid welding joints

The hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking (HISCC) behavior of SUS301L-MT stainless steel laser-arc hybrid welding (LAHW) joints was investigated using slow strain rate tensile (SSRT) method in 3.5 wt.% NaCl solution under different cathodic potentials. With the negative shift of applied potentials from open circle potential (OCP) to −1400 mV[Formula: see text], the HISCC susceptibility index ([Formula: see text]) decreased from 0.15 (OCP) to 0.06 (−400 mV[Formula: see text]), then increased to 0.28 (−1400 mV[Formula: see text]). The specimens tested in air and under OCP to −800 mV ruptured in weld metal zone with ductile features of dimples. While with the potential turned more negative, the specimens ruptured in base metal zone with brittle features of transgranular cleave in martensite, intergranular failure and secondary cracks [Chen et al., Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol. 73, 1695 (2014)].

Hydrogen Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking of Fuel Oil Premix Burner Nozzles in a Heavy-duty Gas Turbine Engine

Abstract A number of M8 fuel oil pre-mix (FOPM) burner nozzles in a heavy-duty gas turbine engine were found loosened after some 32,000 operating hours. They were removed and tended to crack in the shaft upon disassembly. It was determined on site that they were fractured at the fillet radius below the head, at the thread's end. A metallurgical root cause investigation was ordered to determine the cause of the cracking. Selected dimensional checks, chemical analyses, microstructural examinations, and evaluations of fuel oil analyses conducted by external sources were performed to achieve the required results. Fractographic studies were not possible in this case due to the corrosion products covering the fracture surfaces. The FOPM burner nozzles fractured due to hydrogen-induced stress corrosion cracking (HISCC). No evidence of pre-existing cracks was found. There are no signs of over-torqueing nor of any other damage caused by manufacturing or assembly; hence this failure was caused by engine service and is not fabrication related.

Simulation of Environmentally-Assisted Material Degradation by a Thermodynamically Consistent Phase-Field Model

Environmentally-assisted material degradation involves mass transport and mechanical processes interacting in the material. A well-known example is hydrogen-induced stress-corrosion cracking. One major challenge within this scope is the quantification of the coupling mechanisms in question. The computational modeling of environmentally-assisted cracks is the key objective ofthis investigation and realised within the theory of gradient-extended dissipative continua with length-scales. The modeling of sharp crack discontinuities is replaced by a diffusive crack model based onthe introduction of a crack phase-field to maintain the evolution of complex crack topologies. Withina thermodynamical framework allowing for mechanical and mass transport processes the crack phase-field is capable to model crack initiation and propagation bythe finite element method. As complexcrack situations such as crack initiation, curvilinear crack patterns and crack branching are usuallyhard to realise with sharp crack models, they can be assessedwithout the requirement of a predefinedcrack path within this method. The numerical modeling of a showcase demonstrates a crack initiationas well as a crack propagation situation with respect to the determination of stress-intensity factors; acrack deviation situation with a curvilinear crack path is modeled by the introduction of a geometricalperturbation and a locally enhanced species concentration

Failure Analysis of High Strength Galvanized Bolts Used in Steel Towers

This paper analyses the failure of three bolts used in the structural connections of a number of steel towers located in northern Europe. The analysis comprises optical and scanning electron microscopy, microstructural and hardness analysis, mechanical testing and structural integrity assessments. The three bolts present very similar failure processes, with a circumferential external crack that led to the final failure. The morphology of the crack propagation is typical of Hydrogen-Induced Stress Corrosion Cracking (HISCC), with mixed intergranular-transgranular micromechanisms, tearing processes and secondary cracking. The cracks then grew subcritically until they reached their critical size. Quench cracking or fatigue processes have been ruled out.

Fracture Analysis of High Strength Steel Fastener Used in Separation System of a Satellite Launch Vehicle

Abstract High strength 3.5Ni-1.5Cr-0.5Mo (AFNOR 35NCD16) steel fasteners are widely used for various space applications. In one such application, failure was observed in one of the M4X8L fasteners used in the band clip assembly of a separation system. The band assembly was preloaded to the specified value of load as per the assembly procedure and the fastener was torqued to the specified value of 2.3Nm with loctite. The fastener was found to be separated into two pieces at head-shank junction under assembly load conditions. Detailed analysis of the cracked fastener indicated the failure to be due to the hydrogen induced stress corrosion cracking (HI-SCC). This paper presents the details of the failure of the fastener.

ASTM F1624 rising step load (RSLtrademark) testing for hydrogen embrittlement threshold of threaded cut outs of A354BD rods

After tensioning high-strength steel rods installed on the lower housing of Shear Key S1 and Shear Key S2 at Pier E2 of the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge, 32 of 96 threaded rods failed. The rods were tensioned to 0.7 Fu and the failures were delayed failure, from 3 days to 14 days after tensioning. Failure analysis found that failure was due to Hydrogen Embrittlement. A six part test program performed to evaluate safety of additional rods in the field. This paper reports on Test V and Test VI – Small Threaded Specimen Testing. Small (Charpy-sized) threaded specimens were used to predict the threshold Load for the onset of hydrogen induced stress corrosion cracking of large A354BD Rods. The procedure used was to measure the hydrogen embrittlement threshold load for a small specimen and use a validated model to calculate the corresponding threshold stress intensity factor from the threshold load. With this threshold stress intensity factor, a model was used to calculate threshold load of the full size rod. Three independent methods were used to validate the accuracy of using small specimens to predict full-size failures. 1) Use finite element analysis to relate the local conditions at the thread root for a sub-size specimen to the thread root for a full-size threaded rod. 2) Correlate stress intensity factor between sub-size specimens to full-size threaded rods. 3) Mechanical testing of full-size rods in tension. It was found that the analysis methods agreed with each other, thus validating the use of data from sub-size specimens to predict the failure performance of full-size threaded rods. The data generated from Test V has the additional advantage of being able to quantitatively determine the effects of variations in the applied potential from compositional differences in the galvanizing and the variation in the hardness of the rods on the threshold stress.

Failure Analysis: Sulfide Stress Corrosion Cracking and Hydrogen-Induced Cracking of A216-WCC Wellhead Flow Control Valve Body

The wellhead flow control valve bodies which are the focal point of this failure case study were installed in some of the upstream facilities of Khangiran’s sour gas wells. These valve bodies have been operating satisfactorily for 3 years in wet H2S environment before some pits and cracks were detected in all of them during the periodical technical inspections. One failed valve body was investigated by chemical and microstructural analytical techniques to find out the failure cause and provide preventive measures. The valve body alloy was A216-WCC cast carbon steel. During investigation many cracks were observed on the inner surface of the valve body grown from the surface pits. The results indicate that flow control valve body failed due to combination of hydrogen-induced corrosion cracking and sulfide stress corrosion cracking. According to HIC and SSC laboratory tests and also with regard to cost of engineering materials, it was evident that the best alternative for the valve body alloy is A217-WC9 cast Cr–Mo steel.

Metallurgical Failure Analysis-Few Case Studies

Advancement in material science has reached great heights both in terms of development and properties but still failures continue to happen. Failure is often accompanied by economic and human loss. Failures generally occur due to error of knowledge, error of performance and error of intent which comprises improper design and/or material selection, deficiency in processing and assembly. Failure analyst plays an important role in evaluating the causes of failure by using various analytical tools to arrive at the conclusion and suggests remedies to avoid its reoccurrence. This paper highlights the important steps in failure analysis with a few case studies demonstrated. Case studies include the failure of plumbing tube used in engine gimbal control system of liquid propulsion system, where failure was initiated due to process deficiency and its propagation was facilitated under fatigue loading. In the other case study discussed, failure of steel fasteners was due to hydrogen induced stress corrosion cracking (HISCC).

Coupling aspects in the simulation of hydrogen-induced stress-corrosion cracking

Modelling of hydrogen-induced stress-corrosion cracking (HISCC) has to consider coupling effects between the mechanical and the diffusion field quantities. Four main topics are addressed: i) surface kinetics, ii) diffusion, iii) deformation and iv) crack growth. Surface kinetics is realised by a chemisorptions model, hydrogen diffusion is formulated by an enhanced diffusion equation including effects of plastic deformation, deformation rate and hydrostatic pressure, deformation is described by von Mises plasticity, and crack growth is simulated by a cohesive model, where both yield and cohesive strength depend on the hydrogen concentration. The effect of atomic hydrogen on the local yield strength is modelled by the so-called HELP (Hydrogen-Enhanced Localised Plasticity) approach, and the influence on the cohesive strength is taken into account by the so-called HEDE (Hydrogen-Enhanced DEcohesion) model. As the two models predict contrary effects of atomic hydrogen on the material behaviour, namely a decrease of the local yield strength resulting in larger plastic deformations and a reduction of the cohesive strength and energy inducing lower ductility, respectively, the coupling phenomena are studied in detail. The model is verified by comparing experimentally measured and numerically simulated CTOD R-curves of C(T) specimens.