Hwange National Park Research Articles

Expected benefits segmentation of international tourists participating in Zimbabwe safari tourism

The study aims to categorize tourists visiting national parks in Zimbabwe into clusters that are similar to each other according to their expected benefits and to determine different tourist profiles in terms of the expected benefits. For this purpose, data was collected through convenience sampling between 1 February and 30 April 2019 in Hwange National Park, Mana Pools National Park, and Gonarezhou National Park. It was 307 usable questionnaires were obtained. In the research, descriptive statistics and t-tests, ANOVA, factor analysis, cluster analysis, and chi-square analysis were utilized. Three benefit factors were named “Socialization and self-improvement,” “Recognizing nature and wildlife,” and “Relaxing.” In addition, two market segments (clusters) were identified and termed “socialization seekers” and “nature and wildlife seekers.”

Comparability of radar and optical methods in identifying surface water in a semi‐arid protected area

AbstractSurface water assumes a pivotal role in sustaining a wide range of wildlife species in semi‐arid protected areas. However, differences in surface water body typology, underlying soil type, wildlife activity, the presence of phytoplankton amongst other factors, result in high variability of surface water spectral reflectance and detection accuracy. In this study, the performance of radar and optical methods was evaluated in detecting surface water of variable spectral reflectance in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe using Sentinel‐1 radar and Sentinel‐2 optical images for the period 2016–2023. Results demonstrated that radar methods had low surface water detection accuracy which was highly variable as shown by overall accuracy and kappa statistic measures which continuously changed over time compared with optical methods. The overall best‐performing method was the optical AWEInsh (sharpened) which showed high surface water detection accuracy and consistency (OA: 94%–100%) and (κ: 0.88–1.00) from 2016 to 2023. Therefore, optical methods present a stable and robust way for surface water monitoring in heterogeneous semi‐arid protected areas. However, radar‐based methods should be continually explored where optical‐based technologies are impeded as a result of vegetation cover and cloud conditions.

Seasonal movement behaviour of large male elephant in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe

AbstractA great challenge for African conservationists is human–wildlife conflict outside the boundaries of protected areas (PAs). This is particularly true when considering large mobile species, such as elephants, that often disperse from PAs into community land. In Zimbabwe's Hwange National Park, studies on elephant dispersal have focused on breeding herds. Here, we analyse the movements of five older, large males fitted with GPS collars. We found some dispersal outside Hwange, but large males were largely restricted to the Park, especially during the late dry season when water was scarce. Our findings may be useful to regional conservation decision makers.

Stakeholder perceptions of solutions for sustainable management of the African elephant, Loxodonta africana

Sustainable coexistence with wildlife is essential for life on earth but is challenging particularly when dealing with large mammals. The numbers of African elephants, Loxodonta africana, in the Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe have exceeded the management goal of 5–10 000 to current estimates of 45 000. As a result, elephants leave the park in search of food, causing interactions with the local community such as damages to crops, traffic incidents and mutual aggression. We suggest management options that could support sustainable coexistence between people and elephants as well as other species by assessing the opinions among stakeholders in and around the Hwange National Park. The objective is to ensure the long‐term survival of elephants while balancing other interests. The thematic analysis of interviews and questionnaires highlighted 1) stakeholder insights into different management methods, 2) desire for increased CITES export quotas, 3) increased rights for local communities to derive benefits such as meat and tourist exploits. Both culling and hunting along with derived benefits should be considered to establish a sustainable elephant management strategy in Zimbabwe, and for large wildlife species in general.

The behaviours of different carnivore and livestock species shape spatial patterns of human–carnivore conflict

Abstract Understanding the ecological and human factors that shape the loss of livestock to wild carnivores can help target conservation efforts. We used 5 years of livestock depredation records (2009–2013, n = 1147) alongside Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe, to investigate how spatial patterns vary by carnivore and livestock species. Dominant patterns across all species and seasons included an increased likelihood of depredation closer to protected areas (core carnivore habitat) and in more open areas closer to human settlements (where livestock are most abundant). Lions were less likely than spotted hyenas to attack livestock further from protected areas, while goat and donkey depredation was more concentrated around homesteads compared to cattle depredation. Leopards were more likely than other predators to attack livestock in areas of higher human density and nearer water sources, likely reflecting their preference for goats and sheep which generally remain near homesteads unless taken to watering holes. Carnivores make trade‐offs between attacking livestock where it is most available (near human settlements) and where the risk of detection and retaliation by humans is lower (nearer protected areas, in more wooded habitats, and further from human activity). These results have helped target local mitigation strategies. They may also inform human–wildlife conflict mitigation at other sites globally by highlighting the need to understand species‐specific differences in conflict patterns and tailor solutions accordingly. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog.

Food resource competition between African wild dogs and larger carnivores in an ecosystem with artificial water provision.

Predators of similar size often compete over prey. In semi-arid ecosystems where water is a limiting resource, prey availability can be affected by water distribution, which further increases resource competition and exacerbate conflict among predators. This can have implications for carnivore dietary competition. Hence, we evaluated the dynamics of food resource competition between African wild dogs and four competing predators (cheetahs, leopards, lions and spotted hyaenas) in different seasons and across areas with different waterhole densities in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. We used the frequency of occurrence of prey items found in predators' scats to analyse diet composition, overlap and prey preference. For most predators, kudu was most frequently consumed and preferred. Low and medium water-dependent prey (medium and small-sized) were mostly consumed by wild dogs, leopards and cheetahs. Wild dog diet overlap was high with all predators, particularly with hyaenas and lions. There were no seasonal differences in the predators diet. The diet overlap of wild dogs with lions was highest in the low waterhole density area, and wild dog diet composition did not differ significantly from the diet of lions and hyaenas. In the low waterhole density area, wild dogs and hyaenas broadened their niche breadth, and predators diet had a higher proportion of low water-dependent prey. A low density of waterholes increased food resource competition. However, high density of waterholes, where there is more prey availability, can increase the aggregation and density of predators, and hence, increase the risks involved in interspecific competition on wild dogs. To reduce food resource competition on wild dogs, we propose to conserve larger-bodied prey that are less dependent on water (e.g. kudu, reedbuck, eland and gemsbok). As the use of water pumping is common practice, we propose maintaining water management heterogeneity where prey which is less dependent on water can also thrive.

Ecology, status, and distribution of Temminck's pangolin (Smutsia temminckii) in Hwange National Park

AbstractTemminck's pangolin, Smutsia temminckii (Smuts, 1832), faces conservation threats of poaching and trafficking in Zimbabwe. Using a mixed‐method approach we assessed the ecology, status, and distribution of Temminck's pangolin in Hwange National Park (HNP) over May–December 2021. Seven pangolins were recorded through direct sightings, although camera traps deployed did not detect pangolins. Biotic and abiotic factors including rainfall, air temperature, waterholes, digital elevation model, anthills, and Miombo vegetation influence pangolin distribution. The low pangolin numbers recorded in the study either indicate its shy nature or simply reflect its low densities in HNP. Short‐term surveys are inconclusive for determining key factors influencing the population, ecology, and distribution of shy species such as Temminck's pangolin. Long‐term future monitoring initiatives integrating ground surveys, citizen science data, and scientific methods like environmental DNA metabarcoding will enhance accurate assessment of pangolin population trends and presence inside and outside of protected areas such as HNP.

Counter-strategies to infanticide: The importance of cubs in determining lion habitat selection and social interactions.

Animal social and spatial behaviours are inextricably linked. Animal movements are driven by environmental factors and social interactions. Habitat structure and changing patterns of animal space use can also shape social interactions. Animals adjust their social and spatial behaviours to reduce the risk of offspring mortality. In territorial infanticidal species, two strategies are possible for males: they can stay close to offspring to protect them against rivals (infant-defence hypothesis) or patrol the territory more intensively to prevent rival intrusions (territorial-defence hypothesis). Here, we tested these hypotheses in African lions (Panthera leo) by investigating how males and females adjust their social and spatial behaviours in the presence of offspring. We combined datasets on the demography and movement of lions, collected between 2002 and 2016 in Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), to document the presence of cubs (field observations) and the simultaneous movements of groupmates and competitors (GPS tracking). We showed a spatial response of lions to the presence of offspring, with females with cubs less likely to select areas close to waterholes or in the periphery of the territory than females without cubs. In contrast, these areas were more selected by males when there were cubs in the pride. We also found social responses. Males spent more time with females as habitat openness increased but the presence of cubs in the pride did not influence the average likelihood of observing males with females. Furthermore, rival males relocated further after an encounter with pride males when cubs were present in the prides, suggesting that the presence of cubs leads to a more vigorous repulsion of competitors. Males with cubs in their pride were more likely to interact with male competitors on the edge of the pride's home range and far from the waterholes, suggesting that they are particularly assiduous in detecting and repelling rival males during these periods. In general, the strategies to avoid infanticide exhibited by male lions supported the territorial-defence hypothesis. Our study contributes to answer the recent call for a behavioural ecology at the spatial-social interface.

Age-sex structure of drought-driven African elephant (Loxodonta africana) mortality in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe

Age and sex determination of 101 lower jaws from drought-driven savanna elephant mortalities was done in Hwange National Park (HNP) using the Age Reference Line (ARL) method. We recorded an overall higher number of female elephant death compared to males. The age at death was skewed towards the young and very old individuals, with an overall gradual decrease in frequency into prime cohorts. Female elephant mortalities were more prevalent in young animals, nursing, and very old individuals. A similar mortality trend was observed for male elephants below the age of 22 years. We did not record any elephant between the age of 45–52.5 years for both sexes. We support the notion that the overall distribution of the female's mortality prevalence compared to males is aligned to and influenced by the social and developmental behaviour of savanna elephants. Our findings suggest a natural selection process at play, facilitated by resource limitation during the period of drought. This study provides evidence for the need to get back to the basic ecological principles and understanding of natural ecological processes in the conservation of key species. Although elephant mortalities due to drought represent a small proportion of the entire population in the study area, more work needs to be done to investigate the influence of drought, novel infections and anthropogenic drivers as they have potential to affect savanna elephant populations in the long term.

Towards equitable conservation: Social capital, fear and livestock loss shape perceived benefit from a protected area.

Providing sufficient benefits to local people can be an important component of effective and equitable conservation, especially where local communities face substantial opportunity costs or disbenefits from conservation. However, the distribution of benefits to local people is often inadequate or inequitable. In this study we investigated the heterogeneity in the extent to which people living near Hwange National Park (HNP), Zimbabwe, perceive benefit from the presence of the park. Specifically, we examined the relationships between a diverse set of candidate predictor variables and perceived benefit from HNP. Our candidate predictor variables broadly relate to personal assets, social capital, value orientation, fear of lions, and belief and participation in human-wildlife conflict mitigation schemes. One third of respondents reported that their household experienced at least some benefits from HNP. Of all respondents, 6% perceived their household to benefit strongly from HNP and 2% very strongly. Livestock loss to wildlife was the most important factor for predicting perceived benefit, with those suffering more loss less likely to perceive benefit. Multiple demographic factors predicted perceived benefit with, for instance, older people and those with less education perceiving less benefit. Employment in conservation-related work positively affected perceived benefit, whereas fear of lions had a negative impact. Social capital appeared to have a positive influence on perceived benefit from HNP. The relationship between social capital and perceived benefit was positive and plateauing, which suggests that social capital is especially impactful on the benefit perceived by individuals reporting the least social capital. We also found a positive association between belief in compensation schemes and perceived benefit from HNP. We posit hypotheses for this association but are unable to determine the underlying drivers of this relationship. Finally, participation in the community guardians programme, a human-lion conflict mitigation programme, was positively related to perceived benefit from HNP. Thus, our findings emphasise the value of considering a diverse array of factors when investigating park-people relationships and yield insights for improving the equitability of conservation in and around HNP and similar systems.

Trends in elephant poaching in the Mid‐Zambezi Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook

Trends in elephant poaching in the <scp>Mid‐Zambezi</scp> Valley, Zimbabwe: Lessons learnt and future outlook

The influence of African elephants on litter and soil nitrogen attributes in mopane woodland in Hwange National Park, northwest Zimbabwe

Little is known about modification of nutrient fluxes through elephant-induced woodland change. We assessed litter quality, soil N attributes, and N transformations in five 20 × 20 m plots each established on sites of low, medium, and high elephant utilization categorized using dung-count surveys in three mopane woodland patches in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Litter standing crop significantly declined but litter N, lignin, lignin:N, condensed tannins, and total phenols increased with increasing elephant utilization, peaking at intermediate levels of elephant utilization. Medium elephant utilization sites had more than twice the nitrate pools in low and high elephant utilization sites (p < 0.001). Ammonium concentration at low elephant utilization was lower by 65% and 92% than at high and medium elephant utilization, respectively. Soil moisture, infiltration rates, N mineralization, and nitrification decreased with increasing elephant utilization. Nitrogen mineralization and nitrification were up to four times greater in low than in medium and high elephant utilization sites. Ammonium, N mineralization, and nitrification were positively correlated to litter N but negatively correlated to condensed tannins. These results indicate that elephant-induced woodland change plays an important role in carbon and nutrient fluxes potentially increasing resources heterogeneity and reinforcing the patch dynamics of savanna.

Application of GPS occurrence data to understand African white-backed vultures Gyps africanus spatial home range overlaps.

Understanding key overlap zones and habitats which are intensively shared by species in space and time is crucial as it provides vital information to inform spatial conservation with maximum benefits. The advent of high‐resolution GPS technologies associated with new analytical algorithms is revolutionizing studies underpinning species spatial and social interaction patterns within ecosystems. Here, using a robust home range estimation algorithm, the autocorrelated kernel density estimator (AKDE) equipped with an equally powerful home range overlap metric, the Bhattacharyya's coefficient (BC), we provide one of the first attempts to estimate and delineate spatial home range overlap zones for critically endangered African white‐backed vultures to inform conservation planning. Six vultures were captured in Hwange National Park using a modified cannon net system after which they were tagged and tracked with high‐resolution GPS backpacks. Overall, results suggested weaker average home range overlaps based on both the pooled data (0.38 ± 0.26), wet non‐breeding seasonal data (0.32 ± 0.23), and dry breeding season data (0.34 ± 0.28). Vultures 4, 5, and 6 consistently revealed higher home range overlaps across all the scales with values ranging between 0.60 and 0.99. Individual vultures showed consistence in space use patterns as suggested by high between‐season home range overlaps, an indication that they may be largely resident within the Hwange ecosystem. Importantly, we also demonstrate that home range overlapping geographic zones are all concentrated within the protected area of Hwange National Park. Our study provides some of the first results on African vulture home range overlaps and segregation patterns in the savanna ecosystem based on unbiased telemetry data and rigorous analytical algorithms. Such knowledge may provide vital insights for prioritizing conservation efforts of key geographic overlap zones to derive maximum conservation benefits especially when targeting wide‐ranging and critically endangered African white‐backed vultures. To this end, spatial overlap zones estimated here, although based on a small sample size, could provide a strong foundation upon which other downstream social and ecological questions can be explored further to expand our understanding on shared space use mechanisms among African vulture species.

Cueing on distant conditions before migrating does not prevent false starts: a case study with African elephants.

Migratory animals often use environmental cues to time their seasonal migrations. Local conditions may, however, differ from distant ones, and current conditions may poorly predict future conditions. This may be particularly true for early wet season conditions in tropical systems, as storms and associated rainfall events are generally not predictable at the scale of weeks or days and are heterogeneously distributed even at the scale of a few kilometres. How migratory animals cope with such challenges, and the consequences they may have, remain poorly known. We used time-to-event models based on GPS data from 19 African elephant herds from Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe) to study the effect of local and distant rainfall events on the elephants' decision to initiate their wet season migration. Elephants relied more on distant rainfall events occurring along the future migration route than on local events when initiating their migration. Such ability to use distant cues does not, however, ensure an immediate migration success. In over 30% of the cases, the elephants came back to their dry season range, sometimes after having travelled > 80% of the expected migration distance. This happened particularly when there was little additional rain falling during the migration. All elephants successfully migrated later in the season. Our study improves the understanding of the migratory ecology of elephants. More broadly, it raises questions about the reliability of rainfall as a migratory cue in tropical systems, and shed light on one of its potential consequences, the poorly quantified phenomenon of migration false starts.

Long‐term high densities of African elephants clear the understorey and promote a new stable savanna woodland community

AbstractQuestionsSpecies defined as ecosystem engineers (e.g. elephant) are able to strongly shape their habitat. In African savannas, elephants have often been shown to reduce woody‐plant abundance and diversity. However, recent studies highlight more complex elephant‐induced effects on vegetation. Here, we assessed if long‐term high elephant densities (&gt;2 km−2) in a large open landscape resulted in the depletion of savanna woodland woody communities or if it led to a new alternative equilibrium.LocationWoodland savanna of Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Elephant densities at the study site have remained high for the past two decades (&gt;2 km−²).MethodsWe measured long‐term (&gt;15 years) elephant utilisation of woody‐plant communities and their effects on vegetation structure, species composition and functional traits (e.g. N leaf concentration, specific leaf area) in 12 vegetation plots.ResultsWe observed opportunistic foraging behaviour by elephants with only a slight temporal shift in species composition, mainly explained by changes in rare species. Further, we did not observe any modification in mean functional trait values, overall height, and stem diameters of the woody‐plant communities. However, we found differential changes in woody‐plant abundance according to the height layer (decrease in the number of tall plants [&gt;200 cm] and increase in the number of short plants [&lt;50 cm]) and a strong reduction in crown diameter for plants in the 50–200 cm height class.ConclusionOur study strongly suggests that long‐term high elephant densities have led to a stable state in savanna woodland vegetation in terms of plant community composition and their functional traits. However, high elephant densities did affect vegetation structure, which would have several important indirect effects on this ecosystem (e.g. predator–prey interactions). We hope that this study stimulates more work on the long‐term effects of ecosystem engineers in large and open ecosystems.

Robust mapping of human–wildlife conflict: controlling for livestock distribution in carnivore depredation models

AbstractShifting human–wildlife conflict towards coexistence requires a robust understanding of where conflict happens and why. Spatial models of livestock depredation by wild predators commonly identify depredation hotspots in areas where livestock are most abundant (e.g. nearer villages or pasture). This may reflect underlying livestock distribution, rather than imply these areas are inherently risky for livestock. This limits the predictive power of these models and their usefulness for conflict mitigation and wild carnivore conservation. Here, we build spatial models of both cattle depredation (530 attacks mostly by lions and hyenas; 2009‐2013), and cattle presence (14 GPS‐collared herds; 2010‐2012) near Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. We use Bayes’ theorem to combine the cattle depredation and presence models to quantify risk as the conditional probability of depredation given livestock presence. Our raw depredation models predicted higher depredation rates where cattle presence was more likely (near villages and in more open habitats). By contrast, our risk model predicted higher risk further from human activity and in more dense vegetation (where depredation rates were higher than expected given the low probability of cattle presence). Risk has also increased sharply towards protected areas (core carnivore habitat). Our formulation of risk captures high‐risk areas as those where livestock are most accessible (i.e. vulnerable) to predators as opposed to simply where they are most available (as in much previous work). We make recommendations for livestock protection and wild carnivore conservation based on our quantification of risk, such as where to avoid herding livestock and which areas to prioritize for livestock protection. Our approach may be profitably applied to guide safer livestock grazing or herding in other contexts where depredation and livestock movement data are available. We hope that the concepts and methods that we develop here will help advance the future study and mitigation of human–wildlife conflict more generally.

Biopolitics in the National Parks: The Life and Death of Cecil the Lion

Abstract Cecil the Lion lived in Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe and was a part of an Oxford conservation study until his death by poaching, outside of Park boundaries, at the hands of an American hunter, in July 2015. Cecil’s death caused unique levels of international outrage, though wildlife poaching in general remains an all-too-ubiquitous phenomenon. This paper enquires as to why this particular death caused such outrage. I will examine this question through two Foucauldian lenses: first, through the Parks’ discursive production of subjects – human and nonhuman animal; and secondly, by investigating Parks’ practices of understanding biopower and pastoral power. I argue that though wildlife conservation in the National Parks is generally interested in conserving the species, not individuals, Cecil’s status as a named individual in a scientific study resulted in the outrage and speaks to the paradox at the heart of Foucault’s idea of pastoral power.

COMBINED USE OF REMOTE SENSING AND SPATIAL MODELLING: WHEN SURFACE WATER IMPACTS BUFFALO (SYNCERUS CAFFER CAFFER) MOVEMENTS IN SAVANNA ENVIRONMENTS

Abstract. In semi-arid savannas, the availability of surface water constrains movements and space-use of wild animals. To accurately model their movements in relation to water selection at a landscape scale, innovative methods have to be developed to i) better discriminate water bodies in space while characterizing their seasonal occurrences and ii) integrate this information in a spatially-explicit model to simulate animal movements according to surface water availability. In this study, we propose to combine satellite remote sensing (SRS) and spatial modelling in the case of the African buffalo (Syncerus caffer caffer) movements at the periphery of Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe).An existing classification method of satellite Sentinel-2 time-series images has been adapted to produce monthly surface water maps at 10 meters spatial resolution. The resulting water maps have then been integrated into a spatialized mechanistic movement model based on a collective motion of self-propelled individuals to simulate buffalo movements in response to surface water.The use of spectral indices derived from Sentinel-2 in combination with the short-wave infrared (SWIR) band in a Random Forest (RF) classifier provided robust results with a mean Kappa index, over the time series, of 0.87 (max = 0.98, min = 0.65). The results highlighted strong space and time variabilities of water availability in the study area. The mechanistic movement model showed a positive and significant correlation between observations/simulations movements and space-use of buffalo’s herds (Spearman r = 0.69, p-value &lt; 10 e-114) despite overestimating the presence of buffalo individuals at proximity of the surface water.

Home range and space use by African elephants (Loxodonta africana) in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe

AbstractThis study examined the African elephant's (Loxodonta africana) seasonal space use and movement using elephant telemetry data in Hwange National Park. The adaptive‐local convex hull (a‐LoCoH) was adopted to understand the elephant movement metrics and home range. Paired t test was used to compare the mean seasonal speed of each group (n = 10) of elephants, while the Wilcoxon signed‐rank test was used to determine differences in the 50% and 90% home range. Results show that mean elephant movement speed significantly differed (t = −3.07, df = , p &lt; 0.01) for all elephant groups across seasons. Moreover, significant differences (W = 3, Z = 2.4973, p &lt; 0.012) were observed between core a‐LoCoH home‐range distributions for the wet and dry seasons. However, no significant differences (W = 10, Z = 1.7838, p &gt; 0.05) were detected between the two seasons for the total (90%) a‐LoCoH ranges. NDVI, Distance to water sources and Slope were positively related with elephant movement speed while Aspect and Distance to roads were negatively related with elephant speed. These findings underscore the importance of resource variability in driving elephant movement and foraging behaviour in a semi‐arid savannah ecosystem.

Analysing factors influencing fire frequency in Hwange National Park

ABSTRACT Detection of key factors driving fire frequency, especially in protected areas, is important for effective management of ecosystems. In this study, we used Generalized Linear Models to test the contribution of natural (NDVI, wind speed, dry matter productivity, soil moisture, percentage tree cover, elevation and temperature) and anthropogenic (distance from settlements) factors as predictors of fire frequency in Hwange National Park and adjacent areas. We used the Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) to evaluate the variable contribution to fire frequency. The model results indicated that all the variables that were used contributed significantly to fire recurrence (p < 0.05). Distance from settlements contributed the most to the model whilst dry matter productivity and annual average temperature were second and third respectively. Removal of distance from settlements from the model increased the AIC value to 1411.2 while removal of dry matter productivity and temperature resulted in AICs of 1269.9 and 1265.8 respectively. Results showed that settlements which are found in the vicinity of the protected area influence the recurrence of fires. Findings from this study can be used for strategic fire management and for the development of effective measures to minimize fire recurrence in a protected area.