Reptile Husbandry Research Articles

Reptile husbandry: the basics

Reptiles are becoming increasingly popular pets. Appropriate species-specific husbandry should be provided for each individual for them to thrive and not simply survive. Enclosure choice does not always mean a vivarium, with a variety of options now available. A size appropriate for the individual should be provided – for larger species, this may mean dedicating rooms or heated outdoor enclosures for them. Substrate choice is critical, as risks such as gastrointestinal obstruction are present, and owners must ensure their animal can exhibit normal behaviour, such as burrowing. Both thermal and light gradients should be provided, allowing reptiles to bask as they would outside of captivity. Provision of water at all times is necessary and must be tailored to each species to ensure they actually use this resource. No perfect enclosure exists, as it is impossible to recreate the identical environment that reptiles inhabit in the wild. Understanding these different components will allow veterinary teams to advise owners appropriately, improving animal welfare and reducing presentations of preventable diseases in clinics.

UVB-emitting LEDs for reptile lighting: Identifying the risks of nonsolar UV spectra.

UVB lamps are used to provide reptiles housed indoors with the UV radiation necessary to synthesize vitamin D3 in their skin. Since 2019, UVB-LED lamps have been on sale for use in reptile husbandry. We performed spectral analysis and mapped the UV irradiance for 18 of these lamps. The positive benefits of UVB-LED lamps over traditional products include greater energy efficiency, freedom from mercury and easy installation without external ballasts. However, the spectra of all the UVB-LED lamps tested had little similarity to the solar UV spectrum. Some lamps emitted short-wavelength, non-terrestrial, radiation known to cause acute photo-kerato-conjunctivitis; we report one case. All lamps were lacking significant output in the range 315-335 nm, essential for natural self-regulation of cutaneous vitamin D3 synthesis, preventing overproduction. We describe a possible risk of serious hypervitaminosis D based on our spectral analysis. We call for long-term animal studies to assess this risk, in which the reptiles under these lamps are exposed to species-appropriate UV index levels according to their Ferguson Zone allocation and serum levels of vitamin D3 and 25(OH)D3 monitored. Spectral modifications of the lamps to make the spectrum more like sunlight may be an essential way of mitigating this risk.

Pet Reptiles-Are We Meeting Their Needs?

Simple SummaryLittle is known about the ability of reptile owners to meet the needs of their pet animals. In this study, 220 pet reptile owners in Portugal reported their knowledge of reptile behaviors and the provision of essential husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge). Although two-thirds of respondents scored very good to excellent in terms of interpreting their pet reptile’s behaviors, 85% failed to provide at least one of the four husbandry needs. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by some respondents. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their lives. Despite this, none of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and a single respondent reported it as poor. We suggest that poor welfare and abnormal behaviors in pet reptiles have become accepted as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted. In particular, the predominant view, propelled by the exotic pet industry, that reptiles are low-maintenance pets needs to be actively refuted.The ability to meet the needs of each species in captivity is at the heart of the ethical debate on the acceptability of keeping reptiles and other animals as pets. Little is known about the ability of reptile owners to understand their pets’ behavior and to meet their welfare requirements. In this study, we surveyed pet reptile owners in Portugal (N = 220) to assess their behavioral knowledge and the provision of essential husbandry needs. Although two-thirds of respondents (68%) scored very good to excellent in terms of knowledge of their pet reptile’s behaviors, only 15% of respondents met four essential reptile husbandry needs (temperature, lighting, diet and refuge) and 43% met two or less. None of the respondents reported their reptile’s welfare as very poor, and only a single respondent reported it as poor. Logistic regression model showed that while snake owners had fourteen times higher odds of reporting adequate husbandry provision, lizard owners had the highest odds of reporting good or very good welfare despite providing less of their animals’ basic husbandry needs. These results suggest that many pet reptiles in Portugal live in, at best, ‘controlled deprivation’ and are at risk of suffering poor welfare throughout their captive lives. Moreover, behaviors indicative of poor welfare and captivity stress were considered ‘normal’ by up to one quarter of respondents. We suggest that the frequency of these behaviors in pet reptiles has led to their acceptance as normal, precluding the search for ways to prevent them. These results suggest that campaigns aimed at challenging the current norm for adequate reptile welfare are warranted.

An Approach to Small Animal Ecological Studies, and their Relevance to Reptile Husbandry

An Approach to Small Animal Ecological Studies, and their Relevance to Reptile Husbandry

William Roy Branch: Bibliography, taxonomic discoveries and patronyms

ABSTRACT William Roy Branch (1946–2018) was the most prolific Africa-based herpetologist of his era. His 659 herpetological contributions, spanning 47 years, include field and photographic guides, taxonomic revisions, phylogenies, ecological studies, annotated checklists, conservation assessments, type catalogues, notes on natural history, geographical distribution and snakebite, book reviews, editorials, obituaries, tributes and prefaces. Bill authored eight book titles, including his monumental Field Guide to Snakes and other Reptiles of Southern Africa (1988, revised in 1998), The Dangerous Snakes of Africa with Steve Spawls (1995, revised in 2020) and Tortoises, Terrapins and Turtles of Africa (2008). He edited the Red Data Book – Reptiles and Amphibians (1988) and was a co-editor of its successor, the Atlas and Red List of the Reptiles of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland (2014). In addition to a corpus of faunal and systematic works, the topics of his publications also include reptile husbandry, karyology, snake hemipenes, snake venom, reptile diets and reproduction. Appendices presented here include a detailed bibliography of his herpetological publications; a chronological list of all the reptile and amphibian taxa he described; and details of patronyms named in his honour. Bill described 68 new taxa comprising 51 species (37 lizards [18 geckos], 7 chelonians, 4 snakes, 3 frogs), 15 genera (14 lizards, 1 snake), one subfamily (Platysaurinae) and one family (Xenodactylidae). Additional species bearing his name are expected to be published within the next few years. He was the most productive South Africa-based author of reptile names (65) in the modern era. As of 2020, he had been honoured by seven patronyms (one lizard, three snakes and one frog species, and a lizard and snake genus).

Risk for zoonotic Salmonella transmission from pet reptiles: A survey on knowledge, attitudes and practices of reptile-owners related to reptile husbandry

Reptiles are becoming increasingly popular as pets. Those animals are reservoirs of a wide variety of Salmonella serotypes, that may be transmitted to warm-blooded animals, including humans. Accordingly, good hygiene practices related to husbandry are important for prevention of Reptile-associated salmonellosis (RAS). A cross–sectional study was conducted among reptile owners, by administration of a detailed questionnaire. In addition, the cloacal swabs of the sampled reptiles were screened for Salmonella spp. and the husbandry management practices were evaluated in order to assess any possible link between the presence of Salmonella spp. and the hygiene practices. The response rate to the questionnaire was 66.6% (100 out of 150 contacted owners). In 26 out of 100 families, members at risk of RAS (children and elderly) were present. One hundred animals were screened for the presence of Salmonella spp. The prevalence of Salmonella spp. carriers was 57% (Confidence interval 47–66%). Co-habitation of the animals with other reptiles in the same terrarium was associated with a 2-fold increase in the risk of infection by Salmonella spp.(Odds ratio=2.3, CI 1.2;13, p=0.02). Animals handled by owners that did not report washing their hands after the cleaning procedures or the handling were exposed to a 3-fold increase in the risk of infection (OR=3.1, CI 1.1;16, p=0.019). When drinking water was not replaced regularly, the animals were 7 times more exposed to infection (OR=6.8, CI 1.8;25, p=0.005). When the diet was constituted by rodents, 27 out of 48 reptiles (56.3%) were fed with live animals. In the present survey the typical reptile owner was a person, aware of ethological aspects of reptile husbandry but ignorant of some ethical recommendations and poorly informed about the health risks for himself and for the other family members. Prevention of RAS must rely mainly on information and education, with the veterinarian health bodies primarily involved in this difficult task.

Availability of Information on Reptile Health and Welfare from Stores Selling Reptiles

The popularity of keeping reptiles such as snakes and lizards is ever increasing. The health and welfare of these animals depends on the knowledge and understanding of their environmental and nutritional needs. But where does a new owner of these species obtain such information? This study aims to investigate what information is available in pet shops and stores for the reptile owning public and how well this information is imparted. Our findings show that there is a lot of excellent advice on the husbandry of reptiles in some shops while others offer less advice. It is hoped that through this study areas of downfall on primary knowledge can be recognized so that all shops can aspire to the highest levels of information.

Suitability of day-old chicks as food for captive snakes

Snakes are increasingly kept by private hobbyists and their numbers in the pet trade are increasing. Since suitable diets are essential for the health, welfare and maintenance of captive animals, objective research is required to improve and evaluate current feeding practices. Unfortunately, the husbandry of reptiles is frequently led by tradition, resulting in methods which are not evidence based. One such occurrence is the widespread belief that day-old chicks (DOCs) are unsuitable as food for captive snakes. Since this assumption has not been systematically assessed, herein I review the evidence in order to provide a more informed basis from which to evaluate the suitability of chicks in relation to rodent prey. Commonly expressed nutritional, ecological and husbandry-related concerns are examined using compilations of previously published data, new data, prior experience and nutrient compositions obtained from the Zootrition™ database. Day-old chicks were compared with two rodent species (mice and rats) since these are the most commonly used alternative prey item. Rodents were clearly the better option only in their 'naturalness', in that mammalian prey species are more frequently represented in natural diets than birds. I conclude that DOCs are a suitable prey item for snakes in captive collections since the available data provide no firm evidence for their avoidance, contrary to popular belief. Many gaps in our knowledge remain that would assist further discussion of this issue, and these are highlighted within. It is pertinent that although these data indicate that DOCs are a viable alternative to rodent prey for captive snakes, they do not necessarily indicate its superiority. In most instances, rodents and DOCs may be regarded as practically equivalent and interchangeable. It is therefore the individual keeper's preference as to which to use, informed in particular circumstances by the information presented herein.

Evaluation of UVB reduction by materials commonly used in reptile husbandry

Ultraviolet B (UVB) irradiation (285-320 nm) is considered important for metabolic processes and reproduction in many reptile species by facilitating the synthesis of vitamin D(3). In captivity, UVB radiation reaching an animal may be diminished by the properties of the materials used in enclosure construction. We investigated the UVB-attenuating properties of 14 materials commonly used in cage tops for reptile enclosures. Irradiances were measured by two types of hand-held broadband radiometers and the D(3)-synthesizing potential was assessed by the use of an in vitro model. For UV-transmitting acrylic, a significant discrepancy between meter irradiances and in vitro model values for D(3)-synthesizing ability was observed, with meter readings underestimating the blocking effect. In contrast, attenuation of UVB irradiances by air-permeable materials, such as wire screen, measured with meters was generally comparable to the attenuation of D(3)-synthesizing ability as measured by in vitro models. Relatively simple meter readings can therefore be used to reflect reduction of D(3)-synthesizing ability through air-permeable materials. Zoo Biol 26:417-423, 2007. (c) 2007 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Chemical Analysis of Six Commercial Adult Iguana, Iguana iguana, Diets

ABSTRACT Reptile keeping is one of the most rapidly expanding areas in the pet industry. In response to this trend, several pet food companies have formulated specialized diets and supplements that cater to the unique nutritional needs of different reptile species. Since nutrition is a key variable of captive reptile husbandry, we investigated the nutrient composition of six commercially available adult iguana, Iguana iguana, feeds that are intended for use as principle diets. We compared the results of our analyses to the nutrient information provided on packaging labels and to available information on the suggested nutrient recommendations for iguanas. Crude protein contents ranged from 13.21% dry matter (DM) to 27.15% DM with two of the six diets containing a lower protein than indicated on the label. Crude fat content ranged from 1.46 ± 0.44% DM to 10.25 ± 0.05% DM with three of the six diets having fat contents below the amount stated on labels. The acid detergent fiber (ADF) content, a measure of in...

Basic reptile husbandry, history taking and clinical examination

AS reptiles continue to gain popularity as pets, their owners' expectations of their veterinary care are increasing. The expansion in the general knowledge of reptile husbandry, medicine and surgery has resulted in the provision of a comparable level of veterinary care for reptilian patients as is already available for dogs and cats. The aim of this article is to introduce the practitioner to reptiles, and to provide details on taking a comprehensive history and performing a thorough clinical examination that will point the clinician towards further laboratory and ancillary tests and that previously elusive diagnosis.

Some Veterinary Aspects of General Reptile Husbandry

Some Veterinary Aspects of General Reptile Husbandry

BOOK REVIEWS

Book reviewed in this article: The British Veterinary Profession 1791–1948 . lain Pattison. J. D. Allen. H. C. Belschner's Horse Diseases . Fully revised edition by R. J. Rose. Angus and Robertson The Veterinary Annual, 22nd Issue 1982 . Editors Grunsell and Hill Fundamentals of Veterinary Ophthalmology , D. H. Slatter. W. B. Saunders, Waltham St, Artarmon Second National Symposium on Sheep Blowfly and Flystrike in Sheep, 1983—Proceedings. Department of Agriculture Dog and Cat Nutrition: a Handbook for Students, Veterinarians, Breeders and Owners . Editor A. T. B. Edney Poultry Diseases . Editors R. F. Gordon and F. T. W. Jordon. Proceedings, 29th Annual Pfizer Research Conference 19 May 1981 . Pfizer Agricultural Division Bacterial and Viral Zoonoses . World Health Organisation Control of Reproductive Functions in Domestic in Animals . W. Jockle and D. R. Lamond. Bovine Haematology . O. C. Straub and others. Paul Parey Biomedical and Surgical Aspects of Captive Reptile Husbandry . Frederick L. Frye. Reproductive Clinical Problems in the Dog . D. E. Jones and J. O. Joshua. Notes on Pathology for Small Animal Clinicians . D. F. Kelly, V. M. Lucke, C. J. Gaskell. J. Wright and Sons History of the American Association of Equine Practitioners. The First 25 Years 1954–1979 . W. O. Kester. The Water Buffalo: New Prospects for an Underutilised Animal . National Research Council

Sex ratio bias in hatchling sea turtles from artificially incubated eggs

Artificial incubation of eggs of green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, above ground in styrofoam boxes results in a 23% drop in the number of hatchlings with ovaries, compared with samples from clutches left on the beach in natural conditions. This masculinization is consistent with the well-known effects of temperature on sexual differentiation in chelonians and with measurements showing that the styrofoam boxes were 1–1·5°C cooler than the sand on the beach at the depth of turtle nests. These findings verify previous suspicions about the use of styrofoam boxes in management programmes for sea turtles, and have implications for the conservation and husbandry of reptiles in general.