Hunting Ban Research Articles

Rapid population response to a hunting ban in a previously overharvested, threatened landbird

AbstractEmpirical data are essential to assess the outcomes of management decisions in the context of adaptive management. We used flyway‐level population indices of a declining game bird to assess population changes after introducing hunting management measures as part of the European Union (EU)‐wide Adaptive Harvest Management mechanism (AHMM). In one flyway, a full hunting ban led to the start of population recovery; numbers increased by 25% in 2 years and the 10‐year population trend improved from “moderate decline” to “stable.” In the other flyway, harvest was only reduced (allegedly by 60% although statistics from key countries were incomplete), and numbers continued to fall (−15% decline). Our study shows positive results of the leading AHMM for a landbird in Europe and provides empirical evidence of the speed of population response and the timeframe needed for change to occur and to be detected. It showcases the successful application of policy mechanisms underpinned by science.

From media campaign to local governance transition: Lessons for community‐based conservation from an Amur falcon hunting ban in Nagaland, India

AbstractMedia campaigns can spur conservation action but may alienate local communities. Transforming such action into self‐sustaining community‐based conservation involves effective governance that rapidly integrates knowledge of resource dynamics, establishes flexible institutions, and fosters multilevel networks. This study examines the emergence of community‐based conservation in response to a media campaign to protect migratory Amur falcons, illustrating shifts in governance and power dynamics that enabled local community ownership. Although conservation developed in the absence of an adequate preparation phase, external engagement, incentives, and recognition of local institutions' legitimacy were instrumental in fostering collective action. This research showcases how community‐based conservation initiatives can be triggered by external social pressure but also how the long‐term sustainability relies on effective governance that respects local institutions and employs cooperative strategies to build trust and foster ownership among local communities.

Using public-sourced photos to track changes in moose antler size during a 20-year hunting ban

Hunting directly impacts the population dynamics of ungulates and can have a significant effect on the quality of phenotypic traits such as horns or antlers. In Poland, following a demographic collapse in the 1990s and the introduction of a hunting ban in 2001, the population of moose (Alces alces) has increased from 1,800 to over 20,000 individuals, recolonising its former range. As the moose is a charismatic species and a popular subject for nature photography, we analysed changes in antler size and shape in this cervid between 2005 and 2021 based on photos of male moose and antler casts provided by photographers or available in social media. Our findings indicate that during the hunting ban, the probability of observing the cervina antler type significantly decreased over time, from 47% in 2012 to 28% in 2021. Meanwhile, the probability of observing the intermediate and palmate antler types significantly increased from 44 to 53% and from 9 to 19%, respectively. The mean number of tines significantly increased from 3.2 in 2005 to 4.7 in 2021, and the antler size index significantly increased from 3.4 to 3.9. The most likely mechanism behind the observed changes could be the ageing of a population released from hunting pressure. We also observed regional variation in antler size, which is likely related to differences in environmental conditions. Our study serves as an example of how passive citizen science can contribute to our understanding of ecological trends and the quantification of population patterns. It also has important implications for management of species affected by trophy hunting.

Migration routes and key stopovers of Anser fabalis fabalis (Anseriformes): critical protection gaps

The population of Anser fabalis fabalis wintering in Europe have shown decline in recent decades. At the same time, the population dynamic of most migratory birds largely depends on the quality of migratory stopover sites, which are necessary to replenish internal reserves. The migration ecology of Anser fabalis fabalis wintering in Europe has not been sufficiently studied. Only in general terms we know about the timing of migration, while the places of key stopovers in Russia are not described. There is no information about conservation status of key sites and the intensity and duration of their use by Anser fabalis fabalis individuals. Without this knowledge, it is impossible to organise effective protection of any migrating population. We have analysed the dynamics and phenology of migrations, as well as the conservation status of stopover and pre-migration sites of Anser fabalis fabalis nesting in the forest zone of Western and Central Siberia and wintering in Northern Germany and Poland, based on data from GPS/GSM transmitters. We used data from 45 completed spring migrations from 25 tagged birds and 36 completed autumn migrations from 20 birds over the period 2019–2023. The migration start from wintering sites occurs in late February, on average 20 February ± 10.9 days. Arrival of the birds in the breeding areas occurs in late April, on average 01 May ± 9.4 days. Over 2019–2023, we found a trend for a shift in the dates of spring migration start (Mann-Kendall test: τ = -0.22, p < 0.05) and finish (Mann-Kendall test: τ = -0.35, p < 0.05) to earlier dates. Based on data from individual bird’s migration routes, 1031 migration stopovers with a total duration of 3529.7 days were allocated. Of these, 616 (59.8%) stopovers were located in Russia, where the birds spent 1831 (51.9%) days. Key stopovers are located in the Baltic Region, the Sviyaga-Vyatka interfluve and the centre of the River Volga Region. The start of the autumn migration occurs between 27 September and 25 October, on average 18 October ± 7.9 days. The arrival at wintering sites occurs between 15 October and 11 December, on average 8 November ± 13.4 days. Over 2019–2023, there was a trend of an increasingly later arrival on wintering sites (Mann-Kendall test: τ = 0.45, p < 0.05). The start of the autumn migration occurred also later (Mann-Kendall test: τ = 0.44, p < 0.05). Pairs with broods are characterised by a longer autumn migration (Mann-Whitney test: U = 67.0, Z = 2.58, p < 0.001), and they spend significantly more time on the pre-migration sites (Mann-Whitney test: U = 71.5, Z = 2.29, p < 0.01) and autumn stopovers (Mann-Whitney test: U = 67.5, Z = 2.56, p < 0.01). The migration speed of pairs without broods was higher than of pairs with broods (Mann-Whitney test: U = 69.0, Z = -2.5, p < 0.01). Only 15.3% of stopovers are covered by the existing network of Protected Areas, where the Anser fabalis fabalis individuals spend only 19.2% of the total time. The results of this study can be used to develop an effective strategy for the Anser fabalis fabalis conservation during the period of migrations. We propose a hunting ban and/or the creation of Protected Areas within the main key stopover sites in Russia.

Impact of the Hunting Ban on the Population and Hunting Bag of the Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola (Scolopacidae, Aves) in European Russia

Impact of the Hunting Ban on the Population and Hunting Bag of the Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola (Scolopacidae, Aves) in European Russia

Phylogeography of the American crocodile, Crocodylus acutus (Crocodylia: Crocodylidae) in Colombia: a conservation perspective

Abstract Crocodylus acutus is the most widely distributed crocodile in the Neotropics, playing a key role in the ecosystems it inhabits. However, unsustainable use and habitat degradation have depleted its populations across its range. In Colombia, it is classified as Endangered by local authorities, and a legislative framework for its protection has been created, implementing hunting bans and breeding programmes. Successful implementation of these programmes depends on the existence of baseline genetic information, which is currently insufficient for the species. We assess the genetic diversity, phylogeography, and demographic patterns of the American crocodile in Colombia based on three mitochondrial markers (cox1, cytb, and trnP/trnF/D-Loop) and propose actions for its management and conservation. We processed 33 American crocodile samples from both wild and captive populations and performed genetic variability, phylogenetic, phylogeographical, and neutrality tests, including previously reported sequences. We found evidence of high genetic variability in Colombia, the existence of clearly differentiated mitochondrial phylogenetic clades, and possible human-influenced or stochastic demographic variation events. We propose guidelines for the translocation of American crocodiles based on our findings and present evidence of possible dispersal events in the Caribbean and Magdalena regions. Finally, we suggest the implementation of management units and identify research priorities for future work.

The effect of military activities on the epizootic situation of ASF in the Sumy region

Using publicly available information from the State Service of Ukraine on Food Safety and Consumer Protection on the cases of African swine fever in Ukraine, the epidemiological situation regarding ASF in the Sumy region was analyzed, taking into account the consequences of military activities. When considering the ways of spreading the virus, the impact of the armed aggression of the Russian Federation on the main risk factors for the spread of the disease was revealed. In our opinion, wild boars, the number of which has increased by 19.3 % in the region over the past year and which is not regulated by hunters due to the hunting ban, remain a particularly dangerous way of spreading the virus. Hostilities, shelling and the movement of military equipment through the ASF-affected regions directly affect the migration processes of disturbed wildlife, which can quickly spread the virus over long distances, spread it within the population and transmit it to the domestic livestock. An important anthropogenic factor in the spread of the disease is the chaotic contamination of military base areas with unprocessed food residues that may contain a viable virus and, together with other fomites, contaminate the environment. Therefore, state anti-epizootic measures and methods of monitoring infectious diseases should be updated to reflect the realities of today. To control the circulation of the ASF virus among wildlife in the Sumy region under the conditions of a ban on monitoring culling, 25 samples of swabs, feed residues and feces from the feeding grounds of three forestries were studied using Real-Time PCR. In 100 % of the samples, no African swine fever virus DNA was detected, which means a negative result. However, the probable absence of the disease within the studied forestries did not prevent the region from having three outbreaks of ASF among domestic animals during 2022, which is a significant deterioration in the epizootic situation compared to the positive case-free year of 2021. Thus, the epidemiological situation regarding African swine fever in the Sumy region remains unfavorable and requires significant attention due to a number of factors that are dangerous and atypical for peacetime and may significantly affect the spread of numerous infectious diseases.

Impact of the hunting ban on the population and hunting bag of the Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola (Scolopacidae, Aves)

Materials from National census of woodcock on the evening roding and hunting bag data from the State Registration Service on the territory of European Russia were used in the study. The impact of hunting bans due to viral infections in 2006 and 2020 (bird influenza A H5N1 and human coronavirus Covid-19, respectively) on the population of the Eurasian Woodcock Scolopax rusticola was described. An increase in roding intensity (the number of contacts) by 9.4% was detected in European Russia in 2007, possibly due to the ban. In 2019–2021, the roding intensity increased by 14.5% in the year of the ban (2020) only. The increase in the number of hunters in European Russia from 2006 to 2020 probably affected indicators of the National census of woodcock. This fact is consistent with the total (spring and autumn) shooting volume and the indicator of individual hunting bag in European Russia in 2021. After the hunting ban, the indicators of hunting bags remained almost the same as in 2019, and there was an increase in these indicators in 2007 as compared to 2005. Thus, the short-term and incomplete ban of spring hunting in European Russia (23 of 41 regions), based on the available data on roding and hunting bag, does not allow us to speak unambiguously about its positive effect on the number of woodcocks.

Variations in Soil Biological and Biochemical Indicators under Different Grazing Intensities and Seasonal Changes

Knowledge of variations in soil biological and biochemical indicators with grazing and seasonal changes is important for assessing soil quality and required management. Lack of proper management could induce irreversible damage to the soil structure; therefore, a seasonal experiment was carried out in Salook National Park, Iran; arranged in a factorial-based randomized complete block design (RCBD) in all seasons of a year. The study area had three plots including a no-hunting area, national park, and protected area. Our data showed that overgrazing has altered the chemical–physical components of the soil with effects on the soil microbiome. The most affected areas are those subjected to the hunting ban and in the summer season. It could be concluded that low grazing intensity while protecting the soil ecosystem structure would increase the biochemical and biological characteristics of the soil and provide adequate conditions for providing forage to the natural herbivores living in this area. In order to preserve the biological resources of the region, it is strongly recommended that the level of protection be increased, especially in areas where hunting is prohibited.

Fall from grace or back down to earth? Conservation and political conflict in Africa’s “miracle” state

Since the publication of the influential text, An African Miracle, much scholarship has focused on Botswana's supposed “exceptionality” anchored in the country's economic growth and sustained democracy. Botswana's success story has proved enduring and versatile, being deployed in numerous contexts including in relation to Botswana’s status as a conservation “safe haven” in southern Africa. Many green plaudits are associated with the tenure of former president Ian Khama (2008–2018), who broke with longstanding tradition and actively campaigned against his own vice president and successor, President Mokgweetsi Masisi. Their acrimonious relationship is multifaceted but in this article, we refer to disputes over wildlife conservation policy wherein Masisi rolled back his predecessor's signature conservation policies, focusing specifically on the reversal of the hunting ban, the disarming of some anti-poaching officers, and changes in Botswana's stance in international environmental diplomacy regarding ivory and the CITES regime. We contend that Khama's conservation decisions—underpinned by lack of consultation and green violence—made Botswana a “green miracle” to outside observers while contravening the central principles of local democratic practice such as therisanyo (consultation) cherished in the country. We argue that Masisi's reversal of Khama-era positions that were unpopular with conservation-adjacent communities represents not a “fall from grace,” but rather the bringing back down to earth of policies that had alienated the local population, thus indicating the potential to pursue inclusive governance that domestically Botswana acclaims.

“It’s like a connection between all of us”: Inuit social connections and caribou declines in Labrador, Canada

Many caribou populations are declining across the Circumpolar North, presenting challenges for many Indigenous Peoples who have deep and enduring relationships with this animal. In Labrador, Canada, caribou herds have recently experienced population declines, including the George River herd, which has dropped by 99% from its peak, leading to the enactment of a total hunting ban in 2013 issued by the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. The decline and subsequent hunting ban have affected various aspects of Inuit well-being. Using Inuit-led multi-media methods, this project heard voices of Inuit across the Nunatsiavut and NunatuKavut regions in Labrador, Canada, which (1) described the importance of caribou for Inuit social connections, (2) explored the ways in which the changes in caribou populations and management strategies are influencing these social connections, and (3) discussed the meaning and value of these social connections for Inuit well-being and the sustainability of Inuit-caribou relationships into the future. Data from video interviews (Nunatsiavut region: n = 54; NunatuKavut region: n = 30) were collected and analyzed using video and photography-based methods. Results characterized how caribou are important social connectors: human-caribou relationships are core to Inuit socialization, inter-connection, and shared experience and memory regarding families, communities, and food and knowledge sharing across Labrador’s landscape. Thus, declines in caribou populations and associated social interaction have had serious implications for Inuit identity, livelihoods, emotional well-being, cultural continuity, and knowledge transfer. In order to support the broader social-ecological system and the well-being of those who are connected to caribou, increased understanding and integration of these social connections into caribou-related decision making and research is recommended.

Make flying-fox hunting sustainable again: Comparing expected demographic effectiveness and hunters' acceptance of more restrictive regulations.

Hunting is a major threat to many species of wildlife. However, managing hunting systems to ensure their sustainability requires a thorough demographic knowledge about the impact of hunting. Here we develop a framework integrating ecological, modelling and sociological data to achieve a sustainability assessment of flying-fox hunting in New Caledonia and assess the relative merits of alternative management policies. Using age-specific stochastic population models, we found that the current annual hunting rate [5.5-8.5%] is likely to lead to a severe decline (- 79%) of Pteropus populations over the next 30years. However, a majority of hunters surveyed (60%) were willing to soften their practices, offering an opportunity for adaptive management. Recurrent temporary hunting ban (at least 1year out of 2) in combination with protected areas (≥ 25%) appears as the most effective and most accepted management option. Our integrative approach appears to be a promising method for ensuring that traditional hunting systems can remain sustainable in a rapidly changing world.

Understanding human-flying fox interactions in the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary as basis for conservation policy interventions

There is no documented flying fox hunting study done in the Agusan Marsh Wildlife Sanctuary (AMWS) which is known to harbor many threatened wildlife species. The Large Flying Fox Pteropus vampyrus is known to be threatened by hunting in the AMWS despite existing laws, such as the Wildlife Act. We conducted semi-structured interviews from September 2017 to January 2018 with 240 hunters in 10 villages through purposive sampling to determine the socio-demographic and economic profile of the hunters, their conservation awareness, perceptions on the monitoring scheme and enforcement, possible hunting patterns, and hunting drivers. Results showed that farming and fishing are the most common livelihoods of hunters. Most hunters achieved an education at the elementary level (42.9%), and belong to a household with 4–6 members (55.5%), often with only one member having a meager daily income (80.7%). Annual flooding was the main economic constraint to the hunters. Largely comprised of indigenous Manobos (62.9%), the majority of hunters did not believe in avoiding taboo species (85.4%). Most of the hunters were unaware of laws protecting Wildlife (62.9%) and unable to differentiate between threatened and non-threatened species (86.3%). Poor implementation of the monitoring scheme and insufficient enforcement were also observed in AMWS. Kites with hooks (55%) and guns (31.7%) were used to hunt P. vampyrus mostly for local consumption (83.3%). Multivariate analysis revealed that daily income and engagement in conservation negatively affected hunting intensity. With many constraints in totally banning hunting in poor and wildlife-dependent indigenous communities in AMWS, flexible policies must be considered. It is more reasonable and realistic to consider science-based hunting quotas in policy interventions to balance conservation and human welfare. Positive behavioral change towards sustainable hunting and trading bans requires a combination of effective education campaigns, engagement of indigenous communities in conservation, improved enforcement, and sustainable livelihood programs.

An assessment of the impact of the 2014 US elephant trophy importation ban on the hunting patterns in Matetsi Hunting Complex, north-west Zimbabwe

This study assessed the influence of a 2014 United States of America (USA) imposed ban on the importation of elephant (Loxodonta africana) hunted trophies from Zimbabwe on the hunting patterns (i.e., elephant quota allocation, utilisation and hunter’s or client country of origin dynamics) in Matetsi Hunting Complex. The study was divided into two period, i.e., pre- ban (2008–2013) and post-ban (2014–2017). Although the study results showed a non-significant quota allocation variation difference between the pre-ban and post-ban periods, there was however, a significant decline in quota utilisation in post-ban period compared to the pre-ban period. Accordingly, a significant decline in US hunters or clients was recorded in the post-ban period. It is concluded that trophy hunting and trade bans by some global north countries without an alternative global conservation framework that provides conservation incentives will likely reverse the gains in wildlife conservation and rural development in some global south countries where sustainable utilisation is an integral part of the wildlife conservation practice.

Consequences of shortened hunting seasons by the Birds Directive on late winter teal Anas crecca abundance in France

The European Birds Directive (EBD) prevents hunting during spring migration, primarily to facilitate birds' use of habitats before and during the prenuptial journey. In line with the EBD requirements, the hunting season for waterfowl in southern France was shortened by two months during February–March since the mid-1950s. However, consequences of such hunting bans for late winter habitat use have not been evaluated. We investigated a 55-years dataset from a major international wintering ground to assess whether the EBD-related changes in hunting legislation have led to increased regional teal Anas crecca numbers during late winter. Teal abundance in the Camargue during late winter increased over the last decades: the ban on hunting in February was the best predictor of teal numbers during that month, leading to a sudden 50% increase in relative abundance. In March a more gradual temporal increase since the mid-1960 was instead recorded. Whether the increase in teal during late winter resulted from locally wintering birds or those from elsewhere stopping in the Camargue cannot be discerned. Nonetheless, the increase in teal numbers supports the basis for the EBD, in that a ban on hunting during late winter is associated with a greater use of habitats during this crucial part of the annual cycle, especially in February.

Assessing drivers of winter abundance change in Eurasian Curlews Numenius arquata in England and Wales

ABSTRACT Capsule We assessed annual changes in Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata wintering numbers at estuaries in England and Wales over 40 years against local and broadscale factors. Long-term trends likely reflect the cessation of hunting, but potentially also distributional changes associated with milder winters and changes in breeding success. Aims To investigate whether local or broadscale factors might affect site-level annual abundance changes in Curlews in England and Wales. Methods Relationships between Wetland Bird Survey (WeBS) counts from 46 estuaries from 1974/75 to 2016/17 and environmental data were assessed using Generalized Linear Mixed Models. Results The winter abundance trend of Curlews in England and Wales closely matched the decline of breeding populations since the mid-1990s. However, there are clear differences in the trends prior to this. Our analysis suggests that winter counts were influenced by the cessation of hunting and by weather, with abundance decreasing during cold winters and increasing the following winter. The influence of severe weather was less pronounced in the immediate aftermath of the hunting ban. An increase in numbers in the east of the UK also occurred during this period. No effects were detected for other environmental variables, but this may reflect the fact that only static variation between sites was tested for these variables rather than change. Conclusion The increase in wintering Curlew numbers in the UK during the 1980s and early 1990s likely reflects a positive response to the cessation of hunting, but also a wider redistribution associated with milder winters across the European wintering range. Winter temperatures influenced annual abundance changes at individual sites, although impacts on detectability are difficult to disentangle from impacts on survival using WeBS counts alone. Factors operating during the breeding season are likely to be the main drivers of the current population decline.

Negros Bleeding-heartGallicolumba keayiprefers dense understorey vegetation and dense canopy cover, and species distribution modelling shows little remaining suitable habitat

SummaryThe Philippines is a global biodiversity hotspot, with a large number of threatened bird species, one of which is the ‘Critically Endangered’ Negros Bleeding-heartGallicolumba keayi. The aim of this study was to investigate the habitat preference of the Negros Bleeding-heart and undertake species distribution modelling to locate areas of conservation importance based on identified suitable habitat. A survey of 94 point-counts was undertaken and eight camera traps were deployed from May to August 2018 in the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park, Panay, Philippines. Habitat variables (canopy cover, understorey cover, ground cover, elevation, presence of rattanCalamusorDaemonoropsspp. and pandanPandanussp., tree diameter at breast height, and branching architecture were measured in 5 m-radius quadrats. To identify areas of potentially suitable habitat for the Negros Bleeding-heart, species distribution was modelled in MaxEnt using tree cover and elevation data on Panay and Negros. Using a Generalised Linear Model, Negros Bleeding-heart presence was found to be significantly positively associated with dense understorey cover and dense canopy cover. Species distribution modelling showed that the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park is currently the most suitably located protected area for Negros Bleeding-heart conservation, while protected areas in Negros require further law enforcement. It is imperative that protection is continued in the Northwest Panay Peninsula Natural Park, and more survey effort is needed to identify other critical Negros Bleeding-heart populations, around which deforestation and hunting ban enforcement is strongly recommended.

Community-Based ecotourism and bushmeat consumption dynamics: Implications for conservation and community development

This paper uses qualitative research methods guided by the social exchange theory and the Community-Based Natural Resource Management concept to explore the contribution of community-based ecotourism to bushmeat consumption/production using the Chobe Enclave Conservation Trust, located adjacent to the Chobe National Park, Botswana. Data were collected between May and August 2018. Using semi-structured in-depth interviews, results indicate that, bushmeat consumption became prevalent through trophy hunting tourism. With the hunting ban in 2014, game hunting licenses was stopped, cutting institutionalized bushmeat supply and widening trade-offs between community livelihoods improvement and conservation. Socially, hunting tourism has contributed to affinity for bushmeat taste. Bushmeat contributes to food security for a significant number of community members. Institutionally, bushmeat’s contribution to community livelihoods is perceived varyingly by different stakeholders - some see it as a threat to wildlife resources, a key driver to poaching and extinction of species resulting in unmanageable stakeholders’ interests while others see it as a means to improve their livelihoods and dietary needs. Overall, the nutritional role and financial contribution of bushmeat are prevalent in rural people's livelihoods. The paper contributes through the development of a model that aims to improve bushmeat production and community participation in natural resources conservation

Local attitudes toward the cultural seasonal hunting bans in Ghana’s Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary: Implications for sustainable wildlife management and tourism

This study investigated the attitudes of the people living in three adjacent communities close to the Bomfobiri wildlife sanctuary in Ghana concerning the observation of the cultural, seasonal closures of hunting. The cognitive and motivational approaches to attitude theory in wildlife management guided, under the phenomenology method, the collection of qualitative data on the importance of the seasonal closure of hunting and its implementation challenges. This inquiry was deemed crucial to improving the disjointed relationship between park management and local communities that often make wildlife conservation and tourism difficult at the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary. Forty-five key wildlife stakeholders, including park officers, traditional authorities, elderly residents, and bushmeat traders, were purposively selected with some interviewed personally and others engaged in focus group discussions. Despite a more significant number of stakeholders admitting the importance of the seasonal closure of hunting, some challenges impeded its implementation. These included the absence of alternative arrangements to support hunters during the period for the annual closure of hunting; lack of proper sensitisation and education on the hunting ban; absence of transparency in the equitable sharing of proceeds from wildlife tourism at the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary among park officers (Government) and the traditional authorities; the booming bushmeat business and the fear of losing customers after the fallow period; and purported corruption on the part of park officers, threatening the observation of the seasonal closure of hunting. The study has offered proactive suggestions to the Wildlife Division of the Forestry Commission and mainly to park management at the Bomfobiri Wildlife Sanctuary on how to address these challenges and improve wildlife management and sustainable wildlife tourism potentials in Ghana. Paramount among them is the tactful provision of alternative sources of livelihood and the establishment of enterprises in non-timber forest products as sources of income for hunters during the seasonal hunting ban.

Political leadership and non-state actors in the greening of Botswana

ABSTRACT The global environmental crisis has drawn increasing attention to how state power should be deployed towards achieving ecological objectives. Hence, scholars have debated the form and functions that the state might take within a sustainable political-economic model. The concept of the green state is central to this debate but the concept itself raises further questions about whether and how African states fit into this categorisation. In this article, we contribute to these debates by arguing that Botswana has been greening over time and that the Ian Khama regime took this process to a high level through the hunting ban in 2014. The country orchestrated its greener model of capitalist accumulation and gross domestic growth through the wildlife economy, which is anchored on environmental policies that fuse together domestic and global interests. Between 1966 and 2018, political leaders authorised these policies that in turn shaped power relations in the wildlife sector, particularly between the state and the private sector, to the detriment of local communities.