Hunter-gatherer Occupation Research Articles

The environmental and cultural background for the reoccupation of the Armenian Highlands after the Last Glacial Maximum: The contribution of Kalavan 6

This paper introduces the results from our excavations of the open-air late Upper Paleolithic site of Kalavan 6, Armenia. The site is embedded in a sedimentological sequence spanning from the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM; 26.5–19/20 ka) to the Holocene (i.e., from MIS 2 to 1). Our findings are presented together with chronological, environmental, and climatic data. Luminescence dating provides a temporal framework for reoccupation of the Armenian Highlands after the LGM, while two vegetation proxies (pollen assemblages and leaf waxes) characterize the environment. Based on these pollen data, a quantitative climate reconstruction (temperatures and precipitation) is offered. Techno-typological characterization of the lithic assemblages is presented together with the sourcing of the entire obsidian assemblage by portable X-ray fluorescence, providing insights into the occupants’ exploited territories. Such a framework, which incorporates both environmental reconstruction and hunter-gatherer behaviors, enables us to contextualize possible links between population dynamics during the height of the LGM and post-LGM environmental oscillations. We suggest that, during the LGM between ca. 24 and 19 ka, the combination of declining temperatures and the extension of the winter season limited the occupation feasibility of the region. The regional occupation resumed when environmental circumstances ameliorated. These results support our interpretation that temperatures and the duration of the seasons conditioned the past hunter-gatherer's occupation of the region.

Between grasslands, shrublands and forests. Paleoenvironmental and taphonomic implications of micromammals in hunter-gatherer archaeological contexts of Southern Pampean Hills

ABSTRACT The integral study of micromammals recovered from archaeological contexts provides a number of contributions to the understanding of the dynamics of human occupation. In this paper, based on a comprehensive study of Holocene and actualistic samples from central Argentina, we discuss the taphonomic and paleoenvironmental implications in sites with hunter-gatherer occupations. The sequence studied (ca. 1500–4500 BP) indicates the presence of natural predators (i.e. nocturnal and diurnal birds of prey) as responsible for the formation of the assemblage, ruling out, so far, the participation of human groups. On the other hand, the taxonomic composition of the preterite and actualistic assemblages shows a process of advancement of shrubland and forest environments at the expense of the decrease of open environments, grassland and fresh water contexts.

Nahal Zahal, an Early PPNB Site in the Northern Negev: A Preliminary Report on the First Excavation Season

Abstract. The site of Nahal Zahal is located in Ramat Hovav (northern Negev). A salvage excavation carried out in March 2020 revealed an Early Pre-Pottery Neolithic B occupation (EPPNB; ca. 8600–8150 cal. BC), including at least one large, round structure with adjoining cells and installations, as well as a rich lithic assemblage. EPPNB evidence from the Negev is limited, including small hunter-gatherer occupations in and around the Negev Highlands (i.e., Abu Salem and Nahal Boqer) and campsites in the western Negev (i.e., Nahal Lavan 109). No radiometric dates are currently available for this phase in the region, and chronology is based on typological seriation. The excavations at Nahal Zahal provide invaluable information regarding EPPNB settlement and subsistence strategies. Exceptional preservation of organic material provides a unique opportunity to radiometrically date the occupation at the site and the EPPNB of the Negev in general.

Ecological drivers of hunter-gatherer lithic technology from the Middle and Later Stone Age in Central Africa

Central Africa is a key region for examining patterns of hunter-gatherer inhabitation and engagement with ecological diversity and environmental change. In contrast to adjacent regions, however, the archaeological record of prehistoric hunter-gatherer populations in Central Africa is underrepresented in studies of recent human evolution. This limited engagement with Central African archaeological records in part stems from the complexities of identifying, excavating, and dating hunter-gatherer sites in what are today often heavily forested environments, a focus on named stone tool industries from undated sites to structure the record, and highly limited means to associate dated hunter-gatherer occupations with proxy records of environmental conditions. Here, we present a novel synthesis of prehistoric hunter-gatherer stone tool assemblages from dated Central African sites and use climate model datasets to illuminate the environmental and ecological landscapes in which they were deployed. Our results suggest a significant ecological shift occurred from 14,000 years ago onwards, associated with a greater engagement with broadleaf forests. We examine the extent to which a range of geographic and paleoclimatic drivers can explain patterns of gross assemblage composition and the appearance of individual lithic technologies highlighting the significant role of changes in altitude, precipitation, seasonality, and ecology. Notably, considerable continuity can be observed between the habitat ranges of contemporary hunter-gatherer populations in Central Africa and prehistoric occupations that significantly precede the appearance of farming lifeways in the region.

What's in a Hearth? Preliminary Findings from the Margal Hunter-Gatherer Habitation in the Eastern Mongolian Gobi Desert

abstract: Today's image of people inhabiting the vast steppe landscapes of Mongolia is inseparably linked to mobile animal herding. Indeed, archaeologists have confirmed that human-animal communities comprised of human herders and domestic livestock roamed across Mongolia's grassland environment and utilized semi-arid to arid regions such as the Gobi steppe desert for thousands of years. However, it is much rarer to catch a glimpse of the time before the advent of pastoralism in this part of the world. During the Neolithic (ca. 6000–1800 b.c.), the Gobi was much less of a desert than it is today. Sparsely scattered archaeological sites testify to the presence of hunter-gatherer groups that successfully exploited rich wetland environments. As a result of the pedestrian survey carried out by the Dornod Mongol Survey in the greater region of Delgerkhaan Uul, we discovered in situ remains of a Neolithic habitation site. Excavations at the Margal site uncovered a stratified hearth and a lithic assemblage embedded in a habitation layer and accompanied by a few faunal bone fragments. Our finds correspond with the Oasis 2 stage (ca. 6000–3000 b.c.) of the scheme established by Janz and colleagues dividing the Mongolian Neolithic into phases based on habitation, as well as subsistence patterns and technology. However, some typical Oasis 2 markers such as pottery and grinding tools are missing from the small assemblage uncovered from test excavations in 2017 and 2018. Margal likely belonged to a regional network of extended hunter-gatherer occupation relying on wild plant and faunal resources. The site represents the first of its kind in the region and has potential to shed light on hunter-gatherer subsistence and habitation decisions. In concert with adjacent archaeological surface scatters and contextualized in the supraregional network of hunter-gatherer habitation, it will contribute to refining current models of lifeways and transformations in Mongolian prehistory.

What’s in a Hearth?: Preliminary Findings from the Margal Hunter-gatherer Habitation in the Eastern Mongolian Gobi Desert

Today’s image of people inhabiting the vast steppe landscapes of Mongolia is inseparably linked to mobile animal herding. Indeed, archaeologists have confirmed that human-animal communities comprised of human herders and domestic livestock roamed across Mongolia’s grassland environment and utilized semiarid to arid regions such as the Gobi steppe desert for thousands of years. However, it is much rarer to catch a glimpse of the time before the advent of pastoralism in this part of the world. During the Neolithic (ca. 6000 – 1800 B.C.), the Gobi was much less of a desert than it is today. Sparsely scattered archaeological sites testify to the presence of hunter-gatherer groups that successfully exploited rich wetland environments. As a result of the pedestrian survey carried out by the Dornod-Mongol-Survey in the greater region of Delgerkhaan Uul, we discovered in situ remains of a Neolithic habitation site. Excavations at the Margal site uncovered a stratified hearth and a lithic assemblage embedded in a habitation layer and accompanied by a few faunal bone fragments. Our finds correspond with the Oasis 2 stage (ca. 6000 – 3000 B.C.) of the scheme established by Janz and colleagues dividing the Mongolian Neolithic into phases based on habitation and subsistence patterns and technology. However, some typical Oasis 2 markers such as pottery and grinding tools are missing from the small assemblage uncovered from test excavations in 2017 and 2018. Margal likely belonged to a regional network of extended hunter-gatherer occupation relying on wild plant and faunal resources. The site represents the first of its kind in the region and has potential to shed light on hunter-gatherer subsistence and habitation decisions. In concert with adjacent archaeological surface scatters and contextualized in the supraregional network of hunter gather habitation, it will contribute to refining current models of lifeways and transformations in Mongolian prehistory.

Life before Stonehenge: The hunter-gatherer occupation and environment of Blick Mead revealed by sedaDNA, pollen and spores.

The Neolithic and Bronze Age construction and habitation of the Stonehenge Landscape has been extensively explored in previous research. However, little is known about the scale of pre-Neolithic activity and the extent to which the later monumental complex occupied an 'empty' landscape. There has been a long-running debate as to whether the monumental archaeology of Stonehenge was created in an uninhabited forested landscape or whether it was constructed in an already partly open area of pre-existing significance to late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers. This is of significance to a global discussion about the relationship between incoming farmers and indigenous hunter-gatherer societies that is highly relevant to both Old and New World archaeology. Here we present the results of plant sedaDNA, palynological and geoarchaeological analysis at the Late hunter-gatherer site complex of Blick Mead at the junction of the drylands of Salisbury Plain and the floodplain of the River Avon, on the edge of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site. The findings are placed within a chronological framework built on OSL, radiocarbon and relative archaeological dating. We show that Blick Mead existed in a clearing in deciduous woodland, exploited by aurochsen, deer and hunter-gatherers for approximately 4000 years. Given its rich archaeology and longevity this strongly supports the arguments of continuity between the Late Mesolithic hunter-gatherers activity and Neolithic monument builders, and more specifically that this was a partially open environment important to both groups. This study also demonstrates that sediments from low-energy floodplains can provide suitable samples for successful environmental assaying using sedaDNA, provided they are supported by secure dating and complementary environmental proxies.

Late Holocene triangular lithic projectile points, their morphometric variability and hafting systems in the Southern Pampean Hills (Córdoba, Argentina)

The shape variability of triangular stone projectile points and their hafting systems are analyzed to understand the technological practices during the Late Holocene in the Southern Pampean Hills (Córdoba, Argentina). Archaeometric studies were carried out on archaeological triangular lithic projectile points and plant remains. We present results of geometric morphometrics, functional analysis for the determination of microwear use traces and analysis of FT-IR organic residue recovered from the basal and middle blade areas. Complementary anthracological investigations were developed for the taxonomic identification of plants for comparison with the organic remains recovered from the projectile points. Archaeological and actualistic samples come from two multicomponent archaeological sites of Ongamira valley, Córdoba, Argentina where camelids (Lama guanicoe) and cervids (Ozotoceros sp. and Mazama sp.) were the main hunted prey. From our results, we discuss previous typological approaches based on the similar shapes and different weapon systems for the various hunter-gatherer occupations during the Late Holocene. Accordingly, it is assumed that there is technological continuity at least for 2000 years (between 3900 and 1900 BP) not only in flaked stone technology but also in hafting practices based on the preparation of the base shape of triangular projectile points and the use of local plant resins.

Demography, trade and state power: a tripartite model of medieval farming/language dispersals in the Ryukyu Islands.

Hunter-gatherer occupations of small islands are rare in world prehistory and it is widely accepted that island settlement is facilitated by agriculture. The Ryukyu Islands contradict that understanding on two counts: not only did they have a long history of hunter-gatherer settlement, but they also have a very late date for the onset of agriculture, which only reached the archipelago between the eighth and thirteenth centuries AD. Here, we combine archaeology and linguistics to propose a tripartite model for the spread of agriculture and Ryukyuan languages to the Ryukyu Islands. Employing demographic growth, trade/piracy and the political influence of neighbouring states, this model provides a synthetic yet flexible understanding of farming/language dispersals in the Ryukyus within the complex historical background of medieval East Asia.

The First Neolithic Occupation of La Cova del Randero (Pedreguer, Alicante, Spain)

Abstract The excavations at “Cova del Randero” (Pedreguer, Alicante, Spain) began in 2007 within the programme of archaeological interventions of the Archaeological Museum of Alicante. The cavity, located in one of the valleys that connect the coast with the inland mountains, presents a wide sequence of occupations that begins in the Upper Palaeolithic and continues throughout the different phases of the Neolithic. The results of a multidisciplinary study, carried out in an archaeological context associated with the first Neolithic presence of the cavity, are presented here. This occupation is defined by a unique combustion structure to which a set of artefacts and biofacts are linked. This archaeological context, probably of a specific nature, is related to the first agro-pastoral communities settled in the area. The fireplace is well defined stratigraphically and sedimentologically because of its reddish soil, which corresponds to hunter-gatherer occupation levels of the cavity, and under the greyish sediments that characterise the use of the cave as a fold during the Middle Neolithic. This occupation event was dated both by the associated materials, among which a fragment of cardial ceramic was found, and by radiocarbon dating of a metacarpus of Ovis aries around 5075–4910 cal BC (epicardial Early Neolithic). This data allows us to link the occupation of the cavity at this time with pastoral activity in a medium mountain environment. However, it also allows us to infer the environmental characteristics in which the first farming communities of the mountains of Alicante were developed.

Re-evaluating Pleistocene–Holocene occupation of cave sites in north-west Thailand: new radiocarbon and luminescence dating

Established chronologies indicate a long-term ‘Hoabinhian’ hunter-gatherer occupation of Mainland Southeast Asia during the Terminal Pleistocene to Mid-Holocene (45 000–3000 years ago). Here, the authors re-examine the ‘Hoabinhian’ sequence from north-west Thailand using new radiocarbon and luminescence data from Spirit Cave, Steep Cliff Cave and Banyan Valley Cave. The results indicate that hunter-gatherers exploited this ecologically diverse region throughout the Terminal Pleistocene and the Pleistocene–Holocene transition, and into the period during which agricultural lifeways emerged in the Holocene. Hunter-gatherers did not abandon this highland region of Thailand during periods of environmental and socioeconomic change.

The Epigravettian chronology and the human population of eastern Central Europe during MIS2

The goal of this paper is to refine the relative and absolute chronology of Epigravettian culture (26.5–15.0 ka) in eastern Central Europe (ECE) and clarify its relation to the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and subsequent climatic changes. Epigravettian sites were sorted into three chronological clusters: initial LGM (ILGM) (26.5–24.0 ka), local LGM (LLGM) (24.0–20.0 ka), and post-LGM (PLGM) (20.0–14.7 ka). We obtained new radiocarbon dates from previously dated and undated sites, then analysed the lithic tool typology and faunal data to seek correlations between age and archaeological features.The lithic typology study did not find differences between ILGM and LLGM sites, but the tool type variance between LLGM and PLGM was significant, applicable for relative chronology. ILGM and LLGM lithic assemblages were characterized by domestic tool dominance and the frequent use of flake tools. PLGM assemblages were correlated with armature dominance and blade/let tools. Among the armatures, backed point variants characterized the PLGM sites compared to the ILGM and LLGM. The sole ILGM lithic armature was the retouched blade/let point. The LLGM also possessed this type and often included backed blade/lets.ILGM faunal data, although few, implied the hunting of mammoth and reindeer. The LLGM data represented recurring hunting of reindeer and horse, and PLGM data indicated the hunting of horse, reindeer, and mammoth.Our results suggested that the territory of Poland was deserted by humans in the LLGM. Moravia and Lower Austria was inhabited until the first half of the LLGM, while the Carpathian Basin was all along the ILGM. The preference for the Carpathian Basin could have been the milder climate, the abundance of fauna, and permanent access to tree vegetation. After the LGM the glacial flora and fauna gradually disappeared, leading to a reduced human presence in southern ECE. Thus, the disappearance of the Epigravettian culture and Pleistocene hunter-gatherer occupations are linked to the amelioration of climate that resulted in the disappearance of the Pleistocene environment.

A Maxent Predictive Model for Hunter-Gatherer Sites in the Southern Pampas, Argentina

The following paper presents the results of a Species Distribution Model (SDM) for grassland hunter-gatherer archaeology sites in the southern Pampas region of Argentina. The goal of this exploratory model is to provide a complementary survey model for the detection of archaeological sites in this region, which will also help characterize and discuss site locations and regional distribution patterns of hunter-gatherer occupations. Even in this largely homogenous and highly dynamic landscape, SDMs can help guide archaeological surveys by identifying some environmental variables affecting hunter-gatherer decisions, and can provide insights into mobility and archaeological settlement patterns. Among the available tools for SDM, Maximum Entropy Modeling (Maxent) is one of the most widely used approaches in archaeological predictive modelling. After controlling for bias and adjustment of several modifiable parameters, the Maxent software provided a potentially effective predictive model to direct future archaeological survey and heritage management projects. The results of this research suggest that watercourses and slope were the key environmental factors influencing the distribution of hunter-gatherer archaeological sites in the southern Pampas region.

Logistical mobility in the eastern Tandilia mountain range (Argentina): Technological analysis for mid-Holocene hunter-gatherer occupations

This work analyze the technological management of raw materials and the mobility strategy of the human groups that occupied during the mid-Holocene (ca. 8000-3000 BP) the eastern Tandilia mountain range, and discuss them inside of settlement systems context for the southeastern Pampean region. The lithic study results of 13 occupations excavated in caves and rockshelters shows that mobility strategies in Tandilia mountain ranges were closer to collector models, where logistical groups moved into mountain range valleys in search of natural resources. We can recognize different strategies for raw material procurement: the immediately available rocks were obtained through direct access on daily foraging trips; the regional rocks were obtained through logistical displacements, residential movements and embedded strategies; and the access to the long distance rocks was through exchange between neighboring populations. Besides, during ca. 7000 to 5000 cal BP an increased use of immediately available raw materials and a high archaeological signal was detected. This scenario can be linked with an increased environmental aridity episode where human groups occupied with most intensity the Tandilia mountain valleys due to the greater availability of the water resources. Finally, this work provides new data suggesting that during this period in the southeastern Pampean region context, the hunter-gatherer groups combined forager and collector strategies to take advantage of the natural resources of the landscape with diverse environments (coastline, grassland plains, dunes field and mountain ranges).

Technology, subsistence, and mobility of Middle to Late Holocene hunter-gatherers in the southern Pampas: new archaeological data from Las Toscas shallow lake (Argentina)

Despite a long history of hunter-gatherer occupation in the Pampas region starting at the end of the Pleistocene, the known archaeological record is still sparse for some periods, such as the Middle Holocene. Here, we present new archaeological data from Las Toscas shallow lake, located in the inland plains of the southern Pampas, where systematic fieldwork revealed an abundant and diverse archaeological record resulting from hunter-gatherer occupation. The aims of this study were to establish the chronology of the occupations; to evaluate the use of faunal and lithic resources; and to contribute to the understanding of hunter-gatherer land use patterns. Archaeological evidence indicates that procurement, domestic, and ritual activities were conducted around the shallow lake during the Middle and Late Holocene, including hunting of terrestrial game; tool manufacture and repair; storing and use of mineral pigments; and likely human burial practices. Evidence also suggests that the use of this locality was not continuous but redundant and that this shallow lake was a persistent place for hunter-gatherers. Faunal data agrees with regional models that propose that Lama guanicoe was the main food resource during the second half of the Middle Holocene, although a taphonomic bias in favor of larger vertebrates cannot be ruled out. The lithic assemblages suggest that artifacts entered the locality mostly as part of individual toolkits and indicate a strong preference for orthoquartzite. Finally, bone remains of extinct fauna were recovered at the locality; however, a functional association between these remains and cultural material could not be demonstrated.

Revisiting the Epipalaeolithic-Neolithic Transition in the Extreme NW of Africa: The Latest Results of the Chronological Sequence of the Cave of Kaf Taht el-Ghar (Tétouan, Morocco)

This study focuses on the chronostratigraphic sequence of the Cave of Kaf Taht el-Ghar (Dar Ben Karrich, Tétouan, Morocco) excavated in 2012 in the framework of the AGRIWESTMED research project. The broad sequence reveals a series of occupations ranging from the Pleistocene (Moroccan Aterian) to recent historical times. Our research identifies a rich Early Neolithic phase (sixth millennium cal BC) containing the earliest pottery and domesticated animal and plant remains in the western Maghreb. However, this Early Neolithic level is not an immediate successor of the last traces of the Epipalaeolithic hunter-gatherer occupation, which started at the end of the Younger Dryas (10,900–9700 cal BC). An abandonment phase, spanning more than a millennium, separated them. This hiatus appears to originate from a cold climatic event that began in the late seventh millennium cal BC (ca. 6200 BC) and ended around the mid-sixth millennium cal BC.

Tecnología lítica en el sitio Las Toscas 3 (llanura Interserrana, región pampeana, Argentina). Uso de materias primas líticas y manufactura de artefactos

Se presentan y discuten los resultados del estudio de la tecnología lítica del sitio arqueológico superficial Las Toscas 3 (llanura Interserrana, subregión Pampa Húmeda, Argentina). El conjunto arqueológico recuperado está integrado mayormente por artefactos líticos, escasos restos faunísticos y fragmentos de pigmento mineral, resultantes de ocupaciones cazadoras-recolectoras en las márgenes de una laguna. El hallazgo de una punta de proyectil pequeña permite asignar parte de los materiales al Holoceno tardío (ca. 3000 años 14C AP), aunque no es posible descartar ocupaciones previas. El objetivo de este trabajo fue determinar el modo de explotación de las diferentes materias primas y las técnicas empleadas para la producción de los instrumentos. Con este propósito, se presentan los resultados del análisis tecnomorfológico de los artefactos líticos, se analizan las estrategias de aprovisionamiento y se describen las cadenas operativas para cada una de las materias primas. Los resultados indican que en el sitio se desarrollaron diversas tareas tecnológicas, con la ortocuarcita del Grupo Sierras Bayas como la roca mayormente explotada. Si bien se observa la reducción de núcleos para obtener soportes para la confección de una amplia variedad de instrumentos, se encuentran representadas, preferentemente, las etapas intermedias y finales de las cadenas operativas.

Hunter-Gatherer Occupation of the Central Colorado Plateau during the Pleistocene-Holocene Transition

The central Colorado Plateau contains an exceptional density of cultural resources. Historically, however, archaeological investigations have overlooked the late Pleistocene and early Holocene record of this region. As such, there is currently a biased understanding of the earliest human occupations and adaptations. The regional Paleoindian record is reviewed here to assess the nature of initial human occupation of the area. Projectile point typologies, toolstone selection, and site distributions are used to characterize the land use patterns used by the region's earliest inhabitants. Results suggest that as early as circa 13,000 cal BP Clovis groups were familiar with the lithic landscape and habitually made use of local materials. Subsequent Paleoindian populations maintained relatively consistent levels of occupation throughout the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. Finally, the presence of classic Southwest, High Plains, and Great Basin–related lithic technologies suggests that the central Colorado Plateau was part of early interregional land use strategies.

Coastal occupation and foraging during the last glacial maximum and early Holocene at Waterfall Bluff, eastern Pondoland, South Africa

AbstractWaterfall Bluff is a rock shelter in eastern Pondoland, South Africa, adjacent to a narrow continental shelf that limited coastline movements across glacial/interglacial cycles. The archaeological deposits are characterized by well-preserved stratigraphy, faunal, and botanical remains alongside abundant stone artifacts and other materials. A comprehensive dating protocol consisting of 5 optically stimulated luminescence ages and 51 accelerator mass spectrometry14C ages shows that the record of hunter-gatherer occupations at Waterfall Bluff persisted from the late Pleistocene to the Holocene, spanning the last glacial maximum and the transition from the Pleistocene to the Holocene. Here, we provide detailed descriptions about the sedimentary sequence, chronology, and characteristics of the archaeological deposits at Waterfall Bluff. Remains of marine mollusks and marine fish also show, for the first time, that coastal foraging was a component of some hunter-gatherer groups’ subsistence practices during glacial phases in the late Pleistocene. The presence of marine fish and shellfish further demonstrates that hunter-gatherers selectively targeted coastal resources from intertidal and estuarine habitats. Our results therefore underscore the idea that Pondoland's coastline remained a stable and predictable point on the landscape over the last glacial/interglacial transition being well positioned for hunter-gatherers to access resources from the nearby coastline, narrow continental shelf, and inland areas.

The Human Evolution – Past, Present and the Future

Just as the title itself suggests, the present article represents a synthesis of the information pertaining to the origins of the modern human being, the history of his becoming, his departure from Africa (the cradle from where he emerged) and his conquest of Earth, his transition from nomadic behaviour and the hunter-gatherer occupation (which spanned most of his existence) to the shepherd-farmer one, as well as the consequences of this so-called revolution on the evolution, of his social relationships and on the gradual progress made in all spheres of his activity over the past 10,000 years. The question is whether or not man evolved after his emergence about 200,000 years ago and migration from Africa. One chapter of this paper is dedicated to this aspect, bringing a series of arguments to attest that man has continued to evolve biologically and that, depending on the specific conditions of environment and life, diseases faced over centuries and millennia etc, he has undergone not only spiritual and cultural ones but also some genetic changes. Some obvious questions arise as to whether the evolution of man as a species has ended or he will still evolve in the future, the perspective of this process in view of the conditions of huge progress in various technologies, medicine, biology and molecular genetics, genetic engineering (intervention tool in its very genetic structure) as well as regarding the fulfilment of perhaps its most daring dream - that of conquering other planets. The last chapter of the paper tries to offer solutions to these challenges.