Humans In Central Europe Research Articles

The Istállóskő Cave Excavation in 2020 and Its Research Objectives

Istállós-kői-barlang (Istállóskő Cave) is one of the most famous prehistoric sites in the Bükk Mountains of Northeast Hungary. This cave is the most visited archaeological site for tourists in Hungary, due to its location in the valley of Szalajka Stream, a high-tourism area of the Bükk Nature Reserve. The site can be visited freely but is protected by nature conservation laws. The importance of Istállóskő Cave is based on the fact that it is one of the oldest shelters used by the first anatomically modern humans in Europe. Field research that obtained a variety of samples for interdisciplinary studies was carried out decades ago, but the methods for investigating Palaeolithic sites have become more refined since that time. This inspired us to conduct a renewed excavation at the site to understand the ecological aspects of the first anatomically modern humans in Central Europe better.

A very rare case of possible actinomycosis of the mandible from the Middle Ages

ObjectiveDocumented cases of actinomycosis in archaeological skeletons are very rare, especially from Central Europe. Our contribution will help facilitate the differential diagnosis of this disease for other paleopathologists. MaterialThis paper describes a pathological finding of the skeleton of a 40-year-old male from a burial ground in Sady-Špitálky (Czech Republic) dated to the 10th-12th century. MethodsThe affected skeleton was evaluated as a probable case of actinomycosis on the basis of a detailed macroscopic, X-ray and histological examination. The osteolytic foci examined were compared with similar changes caused by tuberculosis, syphilis and mycoses. ResultsThe character and location of the defect on the mandible is indicative of organ actinomycosis and is also reflected by the lytic lesion observed on a lumbar vertebra. ConclusionsThe described case can be considered one of the very rare paleopathological findings of possible actinomycosis in humans in Central Europe. SignificanceGood evidence of bone actinomycosis findings may be beneficial for further paleopathological and epidemiological studies, especially for research focused on the diachronic development of actinomycosis in Europe. In doing so, all available factors, such as hygiene habits, nutrition, social structure and overall health of the population that could be causally related to its origin, course and treatment, can be taken into account. LimitationsThe mandible of the studied individual was damaged, especially in the area affected by the lesion, so the paleopathological analysis was difficult to perform. Suggestion for the future researchIn future, actinomycosis in this skeleton may be confirmed by bio-molecular analysis.

Population structure and attribution of human clinical Campylobacter jejuni isolates from central Europe to livestock and environmental sources.

Campylobacter jejuni is among the most prevalent causes of human bacterial gastroenteritis worldwide. Domesticated animals and, especially, chicken meat are considered to be the main sources of infections. However, the contribution of surface waters and wildlife in C. jejuni transmission to humans is not well understood. We have evaluated the source attribution potential of a six-gene multiplex PCR (mPCR) method coupled with STRUCTURE analysis on a set of 410 C. jejuni strains isolated from environment, livestock, food and humans in central Europe. Multiplex PCR fingerprints were analysed using Subclade prediction algorithm to classify them into six distinct mPCR clades. A subset of C. jejuni isolates (70%) was characterized by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) demonstrating 74% congruence between mPCR and MLST. The correspondence analysis of mPCR clades and sources of isolation indicated three distinct groups in the studied C. jejuni population-the first one associated with isolates from poultry, the second one with isolates from cattle, and the third one with isolates from the environment. The STRUCTURE analysis attributed 7.2% and 21.7% of human isolates to environmental sources based on MLST and mPCR fingerprints, respectively.

Human behaviors elevating the risk of exposure to Ixodes ricinus larvae and nymphs in two types of lowland coniferous forests in west-central Poland

Ixodes ricinus L. is the commonest tick encountered by humans in Central Europe and the most important vector of tick-borne diseases (TBD) in Europe. Foresters represent a group at elevated risk of exposure to I. ricinus throughout Europe. Here, we employed an experimental design similar to one used previously to determine what behavioral factors heighten exposure to questing Ixodes pacificus nymphs in a hardwood forest in the far-western United States. Five activities were evaluated systematically in a coniferous forest and a mixed broadleaved forest in west-central Poland: (i) walking in low-cut running shoes; (ii) sitting atop logs; (iii) sitting on leaf litter; (iv) sitting against tree trunks; and (v) gathering firewood. In total, 540 I. ricinus ticks were collected (198 larvae, 327 nymphs, 15 adults) in spring and late summer. Many more ticks were collected in spring than in late summer, and in the mixed broadleaved forest versus the coniferous forest. The riskiest behavior for acquiring nymphs in both spring and late summer was gathering firewood, though sitting atop logs was nearly as perilous in late summer. In contrast, the riskiest behaviors for encountering larvae in spring and late summer were sitting against trunks and sitting on leaf litter, respectively. Pairwise comparisons revealed only two significant associations among the variables explored for the nymphs: season and human gender, and season and type of forest. For larval ticks, the most significant associations were gender and sitting behaviors and for type of forest and sitting on leaf litter or against tree trunks. The most commonly infested body region was the lower legs.

The role of particular tick developmental stages in the circulation of tick-borne pathogens affecting humans in Central Europe. 3. Rickettsiae.

Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor reticulatus and D. marginatus ticks are the most important vector for Rickettsia spp. in Central Europe. Ticks sustain rickettsial transmission cycles transovarially and transstadially, it makes enable the rickettsial circulation in the tick population in the absence of vertebrate competent reservoir. Rickettsia helvetica is transmitted by I. ricinus tick; the highest rates of infection are noted in adult females, lower in males and in nymphs. All tick developmental stages apart males are able to infect mammal hosts and humans. The potential animal reservoir could be wild boar, the role of deer is unclear; small rodents maintain the tick population. Rickettsia slovaca is transmitted by D. marginatus and D. reticulatus ticks. The available data suggest the role of wild boars and Apodemus mice as animal reservoir. The ticks able to infect human are adults D. marginatus. Rickettsia raoultii is transmitted by D. marginatus and D. reticulatus. The infections of mammals are not recorded. As in Rickettsia slovaca, human can be infected by adults D. marginatus. Rickettsia monacensis is transmitted in Central Europe by I. ricinus tick (apart males), although there is a documented infection of Dermacentor ticks. The differences in the infection rates of tick's larvae, nymphs and adults suggest the limited role of transovarial transmission, and the participation of mammals in the zoonotic cycle, being the source of infection for larvae and nymphs. SFG, Rickettsia slovaca, Rickettsia helvetica, Rickettsia raoultii, Rickettsia monacensis, ticks.

The role of particular tick developmental stages in the circulation of tick-borne pathogens affecting humans in Central Europe. 2. Tick-borne encephalitis virus.

Hard-bodied ticks transmit various pathogens, such as Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Anaplasma phagocytophilum, Rickettsia spp., Babesia spp., and carry numerous other microorganisms with an unknown pathogenic potential. Among them, tick-borne encephalitis virus has great importance. In Central European conditions all developmental stages of ticks participate in the zoonotic cycle of the TBE virus. According to pathogen and tick biology, the roles of larvae, nymphs and adults are different. Larvae and nymphs of Ixodes ricinus ticks are responsible for circulation in rodents and medium sized mammals; adults transfer the infection to ruminants and to next generations via transovarial transmission. All active developmental stages of I. ricinus can play role of the bridge vector, transmitting the infection to humans apart males which don't feed. The late summer peak of human infectivity is caused by the summer peak of I. ricinus nymphs' activity. The Dermacentor reticulatus tick attacks humans infrequently, but does participate in the circulation of the virus in the zoonotic foci; larvae and nymphs of the D. reticulatus ticks are responsible for circulation in rodents, mainly Microtinae, while adults transmit the infection to ruminants.

The role of particular tick developmental stages in the circulation of tick-borne pathogens affecting humans in Central Europe. 1. The general pattern.

Tick-borne pathogens are common in the natural environment, but their occurrence has a focal character. They occur in the natural environment in the form of the enzootic sources of infection. The general components include the animal reservoir, amplifiers and the efficient vector. However, the particular role of components can differ depending on the pathogen, the host range and possible transmission routes. Animal reservoir of pathogen are vertebrate animals, being the hosts of pathogens. In Europe these are small or medium-sized mammals and sometimes birds that feed on the ground. The competence of an animal reservoir is determined by the ability to communicate the infection; long-term persistence of the pathogen in the host; long-duration of infectivity of the animal for ticks; a sufficient number of animals in the endemic region. Amplifiers for ticks are artiodactyls. They are hosts for nymphs and adult ticks, thereby making it possible for ticks to propagate and maintain the proper size of their population. Efficient vector for pathogen are ticks. The first characteristic feature of efficient vectors is feeding duration exceeding 24 hours; the high density of the tick population. The conditions necessary to consider ticks as efficient vectors are met in Central Europe by the Ixodes ricinus, Dermacentor reticulatus and D. marginatus ticks. There are the general differences in biology between Ixodes persulcatus complex ticks and Dermacentor ticks, affecting their different role and ability in pathogens spreading - the range of hosts; the ability to inhabiting of various environments and resistance to unfavourable conditions; the duration of larvae and nymphs activity. The combination of tick's biology, pathogen ability to transmission, and mammal hosts' competence, determines the particular role of larvae, nymphs and adults in pathogen circulation in the natural environment, as well as transmission to new hosts.

Impact of storage conditions on the apple allergen Mal d 1

Consumption of fresh apple fruits can induce allergic reactions in humans. The apple allergen Mal d 1 is responsible for these allergic reactions in humans in Central Europe and North America. Biosynthesis of Mal d 1 depends on apple cultivar, and its concentration increases with time during fruit storage. However, data on the impact of different fruit storage conditions during long-term storage are scarce. Hence, the Mal d 1 contents of eight apple cultivars were analyzed for this study during long-term storage in a cold chamber as well as under controlled atmosphere conditions (CA).

Mushroom poisoning: A study on circumstances of exposure and patterns of toxicity

BackgroundPicking wild mushrooms is a popular pastime in Switzerland. Correct identification of the species is difficult for laypersons. Ingestion of toxic mushrooms may result in serious toxicity, including death. The aim of the study is to analyze and describe the circumstances of exposure to mushrooms, and to define the clinical relevance of mushroom poisoning for humans in Central Europe. Materials and methodsWe performed a retrospective case study and analyzed all inquiries concerning human exposures to mushrooms (n=5638, 1.2% of all inquiries) which were reported to the Swiss Toxicological Information Centre between January 1995 and December 2009. ResultsThe most frequent reason for contacting the poison center in cases of adult exposure was toxicity resulting from edible species. Pediatric exposure predominantly occurred from mushrooms found around the home. Severe symptoms have not only been observed after ingestion of non-amatoxin-containing toxic mushrooms, i.e. Boletus sp. and Cortinarius sp., but also after meals of edible species. The mortality of confirmed amatoxin poisonings was high (5/32) compared to other reports. ConclusionsInquiries regarding mushroom poisoning were a relatively infrequent reason for contacting the poison center. Nevertheless, accidental ingestion of toxic mushrooms can be responsible for severe or fatal poisonings. Although pediatric exposure to mushrooms found around the home has not led to serious toxicity in this study, prevention of exposure is warranted. Inspection of wild mushrooms by a certified mushroom expert or a mycologist seems to be a safe procedure which should be recommended.

Sandflies and sandfly-borne infections of humans in Central Europe in the light of climate change

In Europe, sandflies (Diptera: Psychodidae: Phlebotominae) are typical Mediterranean faunal elements of low expansivity, which are widely distributed in more than 20 species in many parts of Southern Europe. A few species have extended their distribution to the northwest invading extramediterranean regions (Western, Eastern Europe); any occurrence in Central Europe north of the Alps was excluded until recently. Since 1999 sandflies have been found in several parts in Germany and in Belgium; originally these records were ascribed to climate change and global warming. Meanwhile, the more likely assumption is that sandflies have always, probably since the Holocene climate optima (ca. 4500 and 2500 B.C.), been in Central Europe sporadically to where they have come as immigrants (or re-immigrants) from Mediterranean refugial areas. It is, however, without question that global warming will lead to an extension of the distributional areas of sandflies. A climatological analysis of the localities where sandflies have been found in Central Europe has revealed that temperature is the key factor. A comparison of climatological parameters in sandfly-localities with the climatic conditions in Austria (where sandflies have not yet been found) has shown that an increase of temperature by 1 degrees C in January (Ph. mascittii) or 1 degrees C in July (Ph. neglectus), respectively, would lead to suitable conditions for the occurrence of sandflies in certain parts of Austria. (The scenarios for an increase of temperature until the end of the century vary between 1.5 degrees C to 4.5 degrees C; 3 degrees C seem to be realistic also for critical climatologists.) Leishmaniae certainly do not occur in Central Europe primarily, but an increasing number of infections in humans, as well as in animals, acquired in Central Europe has been registered. It is highly likely that these infections are due to sandflies which have been infected by sucking blood on infected dogs. Dogs infected with Leishmania and presenting a variety of clinical symptoms are frequently brought by compassionate tourists from Mediterranean countries - often illegally - to Central Europe. Meanwhile, a flourishing market for dogs of miserable appearance suffering from leishmaniosis has been developed by profit-oriented opportunists in Mediterranean countries. With respect to the serious course of visceral leishmaniosis (particularly in infants and in immunocompromised persons) this dangerous condition merits intensive attention. Phleboviruses have not been found in Central Europe, so far. However, in the course of global warming an establishment of biological cycles after an introduction of the pathogens, particularly if vertebrates other than humans can also act as reservoir hosts, seems possible.

European Hedgehogs as Hosts forBorreliaspp., Germany

To the Editor: The European hedgehog, Erinaceus europaeus, is known to host a variety of tickborne pathogens, including the virus that causes tickborne encephalitis (1) and at least 3 species of the Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato group: B. burgdorferi sensu stricto, B. afzelii, and B. garinii (2). Members of the B. burgdorferi s. l. group are the most common vectorborne pathogens of humans in central Europe (3). The role of hedgehogs as hosts for these pathogens is, therefore, of considerable epidemiologic interest. Hedgehogs are a common synanthropic species that live in urban, suburban, and rural environments (4) and are known to carry not only the hedgehog tick, Ixodes hexagonus, but also the most common European tick, I. ricinus (2,5). Both of these ticks are known vectors of B. burgdorferi s. l. and tickborne encephalitis virus; I. ricinus is the most important vector of both throughout Europe (1,5). To date, however, only limited information has been available on the role of the hedgehog as a host or reservoir for B. burgdorferi s. l. in Germany. We report the presence of 3 species of the B. burgdorferi s. l. group in European hedgehogs from Germany. To our knowledge, this is the first report of these species in hedgehogs in this country and the first report of B. spielmanii (A14S) (6) from this host. The investigated hedgehogs came from 2 sources: 9 from the ≈40 in an experimental plot in the city of Karlsruhe, state of Baden-Wuerttemberg, and the remainder from wild hedgehogs that had been brought to hedgehog care centers from various areas of Germany. All hedgehogs had died naturally, and tissue samples were taken from 43 animals (kidneys from 43, heart from 22, bladder from 33). The bodies had been frozen at –17°C before the samples were taken. DNA isolation was done by using the Maxwell 16 Instrument and System (Promega, Madison, WI, USA). Tissue samples were 3×3×3 mm. To detect B. burgdorferi s. l., we used 2 PCR protocols. The first was a nested PCR done according to the method of Rijpkema et al. (7). The target for the PCR was the spacer region between 5S and 23S rRNA genes of B. burgdorferi s. l. The nested primers generated a product of 226 bp. The amplified products were analyzed by agarose gel electrophoresis. The second protocol, a LightCycler-PCR hybridization assay (Roche Diagnostics, Mannheim, Germany) (8), simultaneously detects and genotypes the 3 genomic groups of B. burgdorferi s. l. This assay was specific for B. burgdorferi senso stricto, B. garinii, and B. afzelii (8) but also amplified B. spielmanii and B. valaisiana. The target for the PCR was the OspA gene. The PCR products of both systems were sequenced. For DNA sequencing reaction, the fluorescence-labeled didesoxynucleotide technology (Applied Biosystems, Darmstadt, Germany) was used. The sequenced fragments were separated, and the data were collected with an ABI PRISM 310 Genetic Analyzer (Applied Biosystems). The obtained sequences were then analyzed and compared by using BLAST (www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/BLAST). For 6 hedgehogs, Borrelia spp. could be clearly defined by using both gene sequences. Two additional animals had positive results, but sequencing was not possible because of either too little DNA or a mixed infection. B. spielmanii DNA was detected in the kidneys of 2 hedgehogs: 1 from Karlsruhe and 1 from 30 km west of this city in the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. When sequences were compared by using BLAST, 4 BLAST sequences ({type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AM055823,term_id:78482935,term_text:AM055823}}AM055823, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:AM055822,term_id:78482933,term_text:AM055822}}AM055822, {type:entrez-nucleotide,attrs:{text:DQ133518,term_id:74476812,term_text:DQ133518}}DQ133518, AY 995900) showed 100% similarity with B. spielmanii. B. garinii was detected in the heart of 2 animals (from Berlin and Karlsruhe); B. afzelii in 3 animals (in the kidney of 2 from Hamburg and Karlsruhe and in the bladder of 1 from Rhineland-Palatinate). A single animal (from Karlsruhe) had B. afzelii in the kidney and bladder and B. garinii in the heart. Preliminary results have also shown that ticks collected from hedgehogs from the Karlsruhe site were infected with B. afzelii (an I. hexagonus nymph and an I. ricinus female) and with B. spielmanii (an I. ricinus female, a nymph, and a larva) (Skuballa et al., unpub. data). These results show, that hedgehogs harbor at least 3 of the 5 recognized Borrelia genospecies found in Germany, all of which are known (B. afzelii, B. garinii) or are strongly suspected (B. spielmanii) of being pathogens for humans (9,10). To our knowledge, ours is the first report of B. spielmanii from hedgehogs, a Borrelia sp. that is usually associated with rodents, especially with garden and hazel dormice (10). That Borrelia spp. infections commonly occur in European hedgehogs is likely. However, questions remain about the role of these pathogens in regulating the populations of European hedgehogs and about the status of these common synanthropic mammals as a reservoir host of B. burgdorferi s. l. in periurban and rural environments.

Zoonotic Babesia: possibly emerging pathogens to be considered for tick-infested humans in Central Europe.

The three host-tick Ixodes (I.) ricinus is regarded as an important vector of tick-borne microorganisms pathogenic for humans in central Europe and is primarily known as the main vector of Borrelia (B.) burgdorferi and the virus causing tick-borne encephalitis (TBE), the most clinically relevant tick transmitted pathogens for humans in European countries. Furthermore, it is now well established that I. ricinus also transmits Ehrlichia (E.) phagocytophila, Babesia (Ba.) divergens, and Ba. microti, all agents of zoonotic infections in dear, sheep, cattle, dogs, and horses. In addition to their known zoonotic potential, recent molecular-epidemiological and seroepidemiological surveys as well as increasingly reported clinical cases of infections caused by these tick-borne organisms other than B. burgdorferi (TOBB) also strongly suggest a possible relevance of Babesia, Ehrlichia and Rickettsia for humans at risk in Europe. However, there are few medical microbiological investigations and epidemiological data on the distribution and relevance of Babesia for humans in our part of the northern hemisphere. There is also very little diagnostic and clinical knowledge on human babesiosis in many regions of Europe. Furthermore, sophisticated diagnostic tools designed for the reliable detection of the underlying pathogens, are not yet generally available to the microbiological laboratory. This review aims to provide basic information on human babesiosis and the most relevant causative pathogens of the disease in Europe and to draw attention to this parasitic infection as a possibly emerging and probably under-diagnosed disease in this part of the northern hemisphere.

Morphological affinities of the Sal'a 1 frontal bone.

The human frontal bone from Sal'a, Slovak Republic, has previously entered into discussions of the morphological patterns of Central European Neandertals and the origins of early modern humans in that region. A morphological reassessment of its supraorbital region and a morphometric analysis of its overall proportions indicate that it falls well within expected ranges of variation of Late Pleistocene Neandertals and is separate from European earlier Upper Paleolithic early modern human crania. It is similar to the Qafzeh-Skhul sample in some metrical and supraorbital robusticity measures, but it contrasts with them in mid-sagittal curvature and supraorbital torus morphology. In the context of its probable oxygen isotope stage 5 age based on inferred biostratigraphic associations, it should not be employed directly for arguments relating to the emergence of modern humans in Central Europe.