Human Subsistence Activities Research Articles

The Floating Island Cave mammals: Paleoecology, abundance indices, and human subsistence through a taphonomic lens

Analyses of mammal remains from middle and late Holocene deposits in Floating Island Cave on the arid floor of the Bonneville basin in western North America are presented. Identified specimens consist of various desert mammals, especially leporids, which mirror collections from neighboring sites and provide additional data for one of the most comprehensive Holocene zoogeographic histories in the world. Taphonomic analyses identified large- and especially small-bodied mammal bones that were deposited by both human and non-human predators. Most horizons contained unusually high proportions of burned bones which are often viewed as unambiguous indicators of human subsistence activities. However, analyses of the cave’s deposits and the numbers and extent of burned bone indicate many specimens were charred in situ by post-depositional burning of the dry vegetal-rich fill. We employed abundance index measurements comparing artiodactyls against smaller leporids to investigate potential changes in human subsistence. We calculated two indices to illustrate the effects of non-human bone accumulations on abundance measures; one encompasses only specimens identified to genera and the other discounts scatological bones and other non-human accumulations and includes only bones and bone fragments classified as cultural refuse. When discounting the hundreds of leporid bones deposited by non-human vectors, the analyses show that the remains of leporids (especially hares [Lepus sp.]) are appreciably more abundant than artiodactyls, even during late Holocene periods of increased moisture. Given the dominance of Lepus in regional archaeological collections we argue that hares were not a low-ranked prey item but a low-risk dietary staple pursued throughout Holocene human occupation.

“The ice has gone”: Vernacular meteorology, fisheries and human–ice relationships on Sakhalin Island

Abstract This paper examines vernacular weather observations amongst rural people on Sakhalin, Russia’s largest island on the Pacific Coast, and their relationship to the ice. It is based on a weather diary (2000–2016) of one of the local inhabitants and fieldwork that the author conducted in the settlement of Trambaus in 2016. The diary as a community-based weather monitoring allows us to examine how people understand, perceive and deal with the weather both daily and in the long-term perspective. Research argues that amongst all natural phenomena, the ice is the most crucial for the local inhabitants as it determines human subsistence activities, navigation and relations with other environmental forces and beings. People perceive the ice as having an agency, engage in a dialogue with it, learn and adjust themselves to its drifting patterns. Over the past decade, the inability to predict the ice’s behaviour has become a major problem affecting people’s well-being in the settlement. The paper advocates further integrating vernacular weather observations and their relations with natural forces into research on climate change and local fisheries management policies.

Effects of land use, habitat characteristics, and small mammal community composition on Leptospira prevalence in northeast Madagascar.

Human activities can increase or decrease risks of acquiring a zoonotic disease, notably by affecting the composition and abundance of hosts. This study investigated the links between land use and infectious disease risk in northeast Madagascar, where human subsistence activities and population growth are encroaching on native habitats and the associated biota. We collected new data on pathogenic Leptospira, which are bacteria maintained in small mammal reservoirs. Transmission can occur through close contact, but most frequently through indirect contact with water contaminated by the urine of infected hosts. The probability of infection and prevalence was compared across a gradient of natural moist evergreen forest, nearby forest fragments, flooded rice and other types of agricultural fields, and in homes in a rural village. Using these data, we tested specific hypotheses for how land use alters ecological communities and influences disease transmission. The relative abundance and proportion of exotic species was highest in the anthropogenic habitats, while the relative abundance of native species was highest in the forested habitats. Prevalence of Leptospira was significantly higher in introduced compared to endemic species. Lastly, the probability of infection with Leptospira was highest in introduced small mammal species, and lower in forest fragments compared to other habitat types. Our results highlight how human land use affects the small mammal community composition and in turn disease dynamics. Introduced species likely transmit Leptospira to native species where they co-occur, and may displace the Leptospira species naturally occurring in Madagascar. The frequent spatial overlap of people and introduced species likely also has consequences for public health.

A zooarchaeological study of Rangifer tarandus (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Croxton site in Brooks Range, Alaska, and implications for utility analysis

This paper focuses on the identification and interpretation of a sample of vertebrate faunal remains from the Croxton archaeological site, located at Tukuto Lake, on the north slope of the Brooks Mountain Range, Alaska, in which caribou (Rangifer tarandus (Linnaeus, 1758)) dominate. Bone modifications are assessed to inform selection and processing, and skeletal part frequencies are analyzed with utility indices developed for this species among the Nunamiut at Anaktuvuk Pass. Results confirm the accumulation of faunal remains resulted primarily from human subsistence activities in the middle to late Holocene that included nutritional uses for meat, marrow and grease as well as technology manufacturing. Statistical utility analyses point to a deposit of marrow and grease processing debris at an activity area and support these as enduring subsistence practices in this region. A previous study on a larger faunal sample from the site also indicated a range of economic uses of caribou but did not find significant results with utility indices. To explain this difference it is suggested that the faunal aggregates chosen for analysis in this and the previous study have influenced statistical outcomes. The results of this study hold implications for utility analysis as well as for interpretations of caribou use at archaeological sites in arctic, sub-arctic, and alpine tundra areas of the Northern Hemisphere where this species has been abundant.

Taphonomic signature of Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) on fish remains

Fish bones are often found in Palaeolithic cave deposits, but the origin of their accumulation is generally poorly known. Knowledge of the accumulator is essential to understand the role of fish in human subsistence activities, and the Eurasian eagle owl (Bubo bubo) is frequently recognized as an accumulator of skeletal remains on archaeological sites.We analyzed 27 Eurasian eagle owl pellet samples from Tautavel (Pyrenees Orientales) in southern France. From this sample, we identified 1812 fish remains distributed across seven species: allis shad (Alosa alosa), European eel (Anguilla Anguilla), gudgeon (Gobio gobio), roach (Rutilus rutilus), Mediterranean barbel (Barbus meridionalis), chub (Squalius cephalus) and tench (Tinca tinca). These remains were characterised by relatively complete skeletal representation, minimal bone fragmentation and low digestive surface damage. On the basis of surface modification, we produced a set of criteria to be applied to the fossil record in order to highlight the role of this owl in cave fish deposits.

Habitat use responses of the African leopard in a human-disturbed region of rural Mozambique

Leopard (Panthera pardus) populations across Africa are increasingly exposed to high levels of anthropogenic disturbance, and information on habitat use responses of leopards in human-disturbed landscapes can help inform status assessments and guide conservation interventions. Unfortunately, however, few studies have investigated leopard ecology in human-disturbed landscapes, particularly in Africa. We employed camera-trapping and occupancy modelling to provide inferences on leopard habitat use in a National Park in Mozambique impacted by subsistence farming and bushmeat poaching. Replicated detection/non-detection occupancy surveys were used to estimate site use by leopards in a representative area of the park, and to investigate relative impacts of environmental, conspecific and anthropogenic factors on leopard occurrence. The proportion of sites used by leopards was estimated at 0.814 (SE = 0.093), which is approximately twice the occupancy previously reported for lion (44%) and cheetah (40%) in the same area. Leopard presence was not strongly predicted by any of the covariates, indicating there were no strong limiting factors. While leopards generally avoided human settlements and were positively predicted by prey, results suggest that there was sufficient prey and space for the species to use most available habitats. The greatest contributing factor to leopard habitat use was a positive correlation with bushmeat poachers and lions. It is possible that these other predators provide a more accurate indicator of prey availability than our single-species indicator based on camera trap data. This study provides important novel information on habitat use by leopards in a system disturbed by rural human subsistence activities in Africa.

Reconstructing caribou seasonal biogeography in Little Ice Age (late Holocene) Western Alaska using intra-tooth strontium and oxygen isotope analysis

The palaeobiogeography of key prey-species can provide valuable insights into animal-human interactions, human subsistence activities and landscape use in the past. In many contemporary indigenous Arctic societies, caribou (Rangifer tarandus spp.) are an important seasonal subsistence species, and recent climatic shifts have influenced the seasonal and spatial distribution and migrations of herds. The impact of larger scale climatic change on this species, such as that experienced during the Little Ice Age (LIA), is not known, but may provide vital clues about future variability. Here we present sequential strontium (87Sr/86Sr) and oxygen (δ18OCO3) isotope data from archaeological caribou tooth enamel from Nunalleq, a 15th to 17th century AD pre-contact Yup'ik village site in Western Alaska, to reconstruct caribou movement patterns in this region during the LIA. The results of these analyses highlight variation in ranging habits over the period of time that the site was occupied, and indicate different ranging behaviours in the region in the past compared to modern herds in the area today. The isotopic data presented here complement the wealth of data derived from other research at Nunalleq, illuminating the influence of changing climatic conditions on prey-species palaeoecology and human-animal interactions at the site.

The influence of Saharan agro-pastoralism on the structure and dynamics of acacia stands

Trees play a crucial role in drylands, where they are often considered as keystone species for ecosystems and for local livelihoods. In particular in the Saharan region, Vachellia tortilis subsp. raddiana (ex. Acacia tortilis subsp. raddiana) are multi-purpose acacia trees for people and contribute to the overall ecosystem functioning. Despite progress in research, acacia stands in this region are poorly documented and little is known on their interactions with human Saharan populations. On the basis of a multidisciplinary approach, the aim of this study was to assess the structure and dynamics of Saharan acacia stands in south-western Morocco and the influence of human activities and practices. Interviews and participant observations were performed in two villages and individual acacia trees were measured in contrasting topography, microhabitat and land use situations. The acacia stands were located in cultivated and browsed areas where trees were used and shaped in the framework of human subsistence activities. In this context, the low-density acacia stands (4.8 trees/ha) showed high regeneration (47.8%) and recruitment rates, and low mortality (3.3%). Land use had more effect on stand structures than topography or microhabitat. Tree regeneration and density were especially high in cultivated areas. Most trees showed traces of pruning (60.3% of them) and debarking (33.9%), but with no correlation with tree mortality. Environmental and anthropogenic factors jointly contributed to the structure and dynamics of acacia stands, and no threat to their sustainability was observed. Even though further investigation would be required to better distinguish environmental and anthropogenic factors and to draw long-term conclusions, our results suggest that Saharan agro-pastoralism activities are not necessarily incompatible with acacia tree conservation, contrary to the commonly admitted postulate in Morocco.

The implications of water storage for human settlement in Mediterranean waterless islands: The example of Pantelleria

Consistent water supply is a common issue in the history of Mediterranean civilizations, where hydraulic solutions, such as cisterns, wells, reservoirs and aqueducts, were adopted for private and public supply. In this context, the island of Pantelleria, where surface freshwater is virtually non-existent, represents a unique case for understanding human–environment interaction in waterless environments. Here, in historical times, year-round water supply was only possible through the storage of rainwater in underground cisterns. An intensive field survey carried out across the island led to the discovery of hundreds of cisterns dated from the Punic and Roman periods to the present day. The study of the spatial distribution of the cisterns was compared with archaeological data on the island to gain new insights on historical settlement and demographic patterns. The present work focusses on a semi-quantitative assessment of water storage on the island of Pantelleria based on the evaluation of potential volumes of stored water for different periods. Data available for cisterns in Pantelleria have been analysed and compared with those from coeval Mediterranean regions. Calculations on the seasonal fluctuation between water demand and supply have been estimated to evaluate the efficiency of such system for sustaining human population and subsistence activities through time.

Deactivation of snares by wild chimpanzees

Snare injuries to chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have been reported at many study sites across Africa, and in some cases cause the death of the ensnared animal. However, very few snare injuries have been reported concerning the chimpanzees of Bossou, Guinea. The rarity of snare injuries in this study group warrants further consideration, given the exceptionally close proximity of the Bossou chimpanzees to human settlements and the widespread practice of snare hunting in the area. Herein we report a total of six observations of chimpanzees attempting to break and deactivate snares, successfully doing so on two of these occasions. We observed the behavior in 5 males, ranging in age from juveniles to adults. We argue that such active responses to snares must be contributing to the rarity of injuries in this group. Based on our observations, we suggest that the behavior has transmitted down the group. Our research team at Bossou continues to remove snares from the forest, but the threat of ensnarement still remains. We discuss potential ways to achieve a good balance between human subsistence activities and the conservation of chimpanzees at Bossou, which will increasingly be an area of great concern in the future.

Effects of Human Subsistence Activities on Forest Birds in Northern Kenya

Indigenous tribes and conservation biologists may have common goals and may be able to collaborate on the maintenance of biodiversity, but few researchers have evaluated the impacts and potential benefits of human subsistence activities. I studied the effects of subsistence activities (primarily wood collection) of nomadic pastoralists in 3 Afromontane forests of northern Kenya. In surveys of 404, 25-m-radius plots, I recorded vegetation structure and composition of the forest bird community. Plots with higher levels of human activity had significantly different vegetation structure, with more-open canopies, more grass, and fewer tree stems. Nectarivores (abundance +231%) and aerial insectivores (+66%) were more abundant in plots with more-intense wood collecting than in plots with less human activity, whereas abundance of forest specialists (-28%) decreased in plots with more-intense human activity. Abundance of 58% of the bird species either increased or decreased significantly in plots with more-intense human activity. Generally, the number of individuals of forest specialists decreased (6 of 7 species showed significant responses) and the number of individuals of edge and nonforest species increased with increasing human activity. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that an intensification of human activities would favor nectarivores, aerial insectivores, granivores, and omnivores and would negatively affect large-sized, ground-foraging species and arboreal frugivores. Subsistence human activities favored the invasion of forest by edge species at the expense of forest specialists; thus, further intensification of forest exploitation by local peoples is not recommended. At the same time, however, subsistence activities in northern Kenya forests appeared to increase the structural diversity of the vegetation and provided suitable habitat for part (but not all) of the forest avifauna, which suggests that subsistence human activities may have a role in the maintenance of bird diversity.

Taphonomic study of leporid remains accumulated by the Spanish Imperial Eagle ( Aquila adalberti)

Distinguishing leporid bones accumulated by different agents such as diurnal raptors, owls, mammals and humans is essential to gain an understanding of not only human subsistence activities but also past ecology. This is particularly relevant in Iberian Palaeolithic sites where leporid remains usually constitute the most abundant taxon. Among diurnal raptors the Spanish Imperial eagle ( Aquila adalberti) has been one of the most important leporid predators throughout the Iberian Peninsula. In order to investigate the taphonomic signature of this raptor, rabbit remains from 79 pellets were examined. Results show a high proportion of distal elements of the limb bones and skull. Compared with other diurnal birds of prey, the assemblages produced by this species appear to show a higher degree of breakage and corrosion from digestion. These results place this predator within a category similar to the small mammal carnivores (category 5) in terms of skeletal element abundance, breakage and digestion. It is hoped that these data will enable analysts to identify leporid fossils accumulated by the Spanish Imperial Eagle in archaeological assemblages.

Taphonomy and zooarchaeology in the Neotropics: A view from northwestern Patagonian forest and steppe

Modes of faunal exploitation in NW Chubut Province (Patagonia, Argentina) during the last 3500 calibrated years BP are discussed, based on taphonomic and zooarchaeological analyses. Bone assemblages were recovered from archaeological sites of the Sub-Antarctic forests and the extra-Andean Patagonian steppe, where huemul (Hippocamelus bisulcus) and guanaco (Lama guanicoe) were, respectively, the main staple. In the steppe, lesser rhea (Pterocnemia pennata), a medium-sized flightless bird, also was integrated into the hunter-gatherer diet. Rodents, carnivores, flying birds, and fishes also were recovered. Different processes and agents were involved in the accumulation of small vertebrates bone assemblages (e.g. birds of prey, foxes, and small carnivores). In the steppe, only two taxa of small vertebrates—birds and mountain viscacha (Lagidium viscacia)—can be related with human subsistence activities. These two taxa and all large vertebrates reveal fat-oriented carcass processing. Guanaco bone assemblages associated both with ceramic and non-ceramic technologies do not show changes in carcass processing. Moreover, the similarities in bone grease exploitation suggest boiling prior to the appearance of pottery.

Taphonomic analysis of leporid remains obtained from modern Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus) scats

Distinguishing leporid bones accumulated by diurnal raptors, owls, mammals and humans is essential to understand not only past human subsistence activities but also past ecology. This is particularly relevant in Iberian Palaeolithic sites where leporid remains usually constitute the most abundant taxon. As far as terrestrial mammal carnivores are concerned, the Iberian lynx ( Lynx pardinus) would be the main leporid predator in the Iberian Peninsula. Up until now its contribution as a rabbit bone accumulator in archaeological sites has never been properly assessed. In order to investigate the taphonomic signature of this predator the analysis of 33 samples of modern Iberian lynx scats was carried out. Results show that leporid remains consumed by this carnivore appear very fragmented and exhibit a strong degree of corrosion digestion. Cranial elements are most abundant followed by long bones. Whereas there seem to be clear differences in relation to breakage and digestion alteration caused by owls, some of the patterns obtained are closest to those established with diurnal raptors.

Palaeolithic Grandmothers? Life History Theory and EarlyHomo

The acknowledged success of earlyHomohas generally been thought to reflect male‐dominated provisioning and associated patterns of co‐operative social organization; recently, however, such conclusions have been challenged with the argument that post‐menopausal females, instead, played a significant role in early human subsistence activities; males, it has been proposed, had a very minor role in food acquisition in earlyHomo. The fossil record, however, indicates minimal old‐age survivorship of either sex and heavy young adult mortality, a pattern which is also seen in larger prehistoric and ethnographic samples. Heavy young adult mortality, when combined with characteristically slow maturation, represents a paradox which humans have solved through new reproductive strategies (early weaning and alloparenting) and new life history stages (childhood and adolescence). Stone tools, when used to acquire marrow and brain tissue to feed needful youngsters, may also have been among the strategies developed in response to frequent early parental death.

A Late Pleistocene vegetation history from the Australian semi-arid zone

Cuddie Springs is an ephemeral lake in central northern New South Wales, Australia. The upper 3 m of sediment consist of lacustrine clays containing a Late Pleistocene sequence of extinct and extant fauna, and in the upper 1.7 m, an associated archaeological record. Changes observed in the pollen sequence include: (i) a peak in charcoal values corresponding to a dramatic decline in Casuarina woodland to chenopod shrubland at 2.5 m, respresenting a climatic shift to more arid conditions; (ii) chenopod shrubland moved into decline with the spread of grasslands around 1.7 m, and the amelioration in climatic conditions persisted until approximately 28,000 BP. A regime emerged which resulted in extended lake dry periods and peak aridity by approximately 19,000 BP and (iii) at 1 m depth, around 19,000 BP a shift to peak arid conditions is observed with a return of Chenopodiaceae and a decline in grasses. The lake entered an ephemeral phase that has persisted until the present day. The broad palaeoenvironmental framework of lake history, climate and vegetation change spans the archaeological and faunal records from Cuddie Springs. The direct association enables a closer examination of causation in faunal extinctions and human subsistence activities in the Australian arid zone.

Toward the Identification of Coyote Scatological Faunal Accumulations in Archaeological Contexts

One of the most important and most difficult tasks in zooarchaeological inquiry is distinguishing small animal bones accumulated by natural processes from those accumulated by human subsistence activities. To assist in this difficult task, attritional characteristics and quantitative data on bones recovered from 40 Great Basin coyote ( Canis latrans) scats are presented. Digestive attrition is evident in skeletal pitting, staining, and polishing, particularly along fracture edges. Some distinct breakage patterns are evident, especially on jackrabbit-sized long bones. The data indicate that variability in scatological body part content may be a product of density-mediated attrition and/or prey availability. We propose that bone fragment size may be employed with corrosive attributes to distinguish scatological accumulations from human subsistence refuse.