Human Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen Research Articles

A phenotypic screen with Trypanosoma brucei for discovering small molecules that target the SLiM-binding pocket of proliferating cell nuclear antigen orthologs.

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a homo-trimeric protein complex that clamps around DNA to tether DNA polymerases to the template during replication and serves as a hub for many other interacting proteins. It regulates DNA metabolic processes and other vital cellar functions through the binding of proteins having short linear motifs (SLiMs) like the PIP-box (PCNA-interacting protein-box) or the APIM (AlkB homolog 2 PCNA-interacting motif) in the hydrophobic pocket where SLiMs bind. However, overproducing TbPCNA or human PCNA (hPCNA) in the pathogenic protist Trypanosoma brucei triggers a dominant-negative phenotype of arrested proliferation. The mechanism for arresting T. brucei proliferation requires the overproduced PCNA orthologs to have functional intact SLiM-binding pocket. Sight-directed mutagenesis studies showed that T. brucei overproducing PCNA variants with disrupted SLiM-binding pockets grew normally. We hypothesized that chemically disrupting the SLiM-binding pocket would restore proliferation in T. brucei, overproducing PCNA orthologs. Testing this hypothesis is the proof-of-concept for a T. brucei-based PCNA screening assay. The assay design is to discover bioactive small molecules that restore proliferation in T. brucei strains that overproduce PCNA orthologs, likely by disrupting interactions in the SLiM-binding pocket. The pilot screen for this assay discovered two hit compounds that linked to predetermined PCNA targets. Compound #1, a known hPCNA inhibitor, had selective bioactivity to hPCNA overproduced in T. brucei, validating the assay. Compound #6 had promiscuous bioactivity for hPCNA and TbPCNA but is the first compound discovered with bioactivity for inhibiting TbPCNA.

Production of recombinant human proliferating cellular nuclear antigen (PCNA) for structural and biophysical characterization

Human proliferating cell nuclear antigen (hPCNA) is a DNA replication processivity factor, which acts as a docking platform, allowing proteins to have access to the replication fork and increasing the affinity of DNA interacting proteins, making it critical for cell survival. The trimer forms a ring-shaped oligomer allowing DNA to pass through the middle and interacting proteins to dock on the outside of the ring. Without this structural formation, there is a loss of DNA replication and repair in the cell. Due to the location of subunit-subunit termini, the addition of a purification tag can hamper crystallography and biophysical experiments, as the trimer complex folding can be impeded. To avoid these complications, a tag-less, step-wise purification was implemented, which resulted in 17.6 mg from 2 L culture of pure hPCNA with a 260 nm/280 nm value of 0.43. The produced crystal structure reveals a correctly formed oligomer. The clear depletion of the tracer binding and probe protein interaction in a fluorescence polarisation competition-based assay demonstrates the purification method produces a protein structure with a functional binding site. This purification method presents a reliable and simple method for producing hPCNA for biophysical characterisation.

Designing Fluorescent Nuclear Permeable Peptidomimetics to Target Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen.

Human proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a critical mediator of DNA replication and repair, acting as a docking platform for replication proteins. Disrupting these interactions with a peptidomimetic agent presents as a promising avenue to limit proliferation of cancerous cells. Here, a p21-derived peptide was employed as a starting scaffold to design a modular peptidomimetic that interacts with PCNA and is cellular and nuclear permeable. Ultimately, a peptidomimetic was produced which met these criteria, consisting of a fluorescein tag and SV40 nuclear localization signal conjugated to the N-terminus of a p21 macrocycle derivative. Attachment of the fluorescein tag was found to directly affect cellular uptake of the peptidomimetic, with fluorescein being requisite for nuclear permeability. This work provides an important step forward in the development of PCNA targeting peptidomimetics for use as anti-cancer agents or as cancer diagnostics.

Characterization of the Interaction Between SARS-CoV-2 Membrane Protein (M) and Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA) as a Potential Therapeutic Target.

SARS-CoV-2 is an emerging virus from the Coronaviridae family and is responsible for the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. In this work, we explored the previously reported SARS-CoV-2 structural membrane protein (M) interaction with human Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen (PCNA). The M protein is responsible for maintaining virion shape, and PCNA is a marker of DNA damage which is essential for DNA replication and repair. We validated the M-PCNA interaction through immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence co-localization, and PLA (Proximity Ligation Assay). In cells infected with SARS-CoV-2 or transfected with M protein, using immunofluorescence and cell fractioning, we documented a reallocation of PCNA from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and the increase of PCNA and γH2AX (another DNA damage marker) expression. We also observed an increase in PCNA and γH2AX expression in the lung of a COVID-19 patient by immunohistochemistry. In addition, the inhibition of PCNA translocation by PCNA I1 and Verdinexor led to a reduction of plaque formation in an in vitro assay. We, therefore, propose that the transport of PCNA to the cytoplasm and its association with M could be a virus strategy to manipulate cell functions and may be considered a target for COVID-19 therapy.

Interdomain connecting loop and J loop structures determine cross-species compatibility of PCNA

Eukaryotic proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) plays an essential role in orchestrating the assembly of the replisome complex, stimulating processive DNA synthesis, and recruiting other regulatory proteins during the DNA damage response. PCNA and its binding partner network are relatively conserved in eukaryotes, and it exhibits extraordinary structural similarity across species. However, despite this structural similarity, the PCNA of a given species is rarely functional in heterologous systems. In this report, we determined the X-ray crystal structure of Neurospora crassa PCNA (NcPCNA) and compared its structure–function relationship with other available PCNA studies to understand this cross-species incompatibility. We found two regions, the interdomain connecting loop (IDCL) and J loop structures, vary significantly among PCNAs. In particular, the J loop deviates in NcPCNA from that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae PCNA (ScPCNA) by 7 Å. Differences in the IDCL structures result in varied binding affinities of PCNAs for the subunit Pol32 of DNA polymerase delta and for T2-amino alcohol, a small-molecule inhibitor of human PCNA. To validate that these structural differences are accountable for functional incompatibility in S. cerevisiae, we generated NcPCNA mutants mimicking IDCL and J loop structures of ScPCNA. Our genetic analyses suggested that NcPCNA mutants are fully functional in S. cerevisiae. The susceptibility of the strains harboring ScPCNA mimics of NcPCNA to various genotoxic agents was similar to that in yeast cells expressing ScPCNA. Taken together, we conclude that in addition to the overall architecture of PCNA, structures of the IDCL and J loop of PCNA are critical determinants of interspecies functional compatibility.

Structure of the mammalian adenine DNA glycosylase MUTYH: insights into the base excision repair pathway and cancer.

Mammalian MutY homologue (MUTYH) is an adenine DNA glycosylase that excises adenine inserted opposite 8-oxoguanine (8-oxoG). The inherited variations in human MUTYH gene are known to cause MUTYH-associated polyposis (MAP), which is associated with colorectal cancer. MUTYH is involved in base excision repair (BER) with proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in DNA replication, which is unique and critical for effective mutation-avoidance. It is also reported that MUTYH has a Zn-binding motif in a unique interdomain connector (IDC) region, which interacts with Rad9–Rad1–Hus1 complex (9–1–1) in DNA damage response, and with apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease 1 (APE1) in BER. However, the structural basis for the BER pathway by MUTYH and its interacting proteins is unclear. Here, we determined the crystal structures of complexes between mouse MUTYH and DNA, and between the C-terminal domain of mouse MUTYH and human PCNA. The structures elucidated the repair mechanism for the A:8-oxoG mispair including DNA replication-coupled repair process involving MUTYH and PCNA. The Zn-binding motif was revealed to comprise one histidine and three cysteine residues. The IDC, including the Zn-binding motif, is exposed on the MUTYH surface, suggesting its interaction modes with 9–1–1 and APE1, respectively. The structure of MUTYH explains how MAP mutations perturb MUTYH function.

Structural analyses of PCNA from the fungal pathogen Candida albicans identify three regions with species-specific conformations.

An assembly of multiprotein complexes achieves chromosomal DNA replication at the replication fork. In eukaryotes, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) plays a vital role in the assembly of multiprotein complexes at the replication fork and is essential for cell viability. PCNA from several organisms, including Saccharomycescerevisiae, has been structurally characterised. However, the structural analyses of PCNA from fungal pathogens are limited. Recently, we have reported that PCNA from the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candidaalbicans complements the essential functions of ScPCNA in S.cerevisiae. Still, it only partially rescues the loss of ScPCNA when the yeast cells are under genotoxic stress. To understand this further, herein, we have determined the crystal structure of CaPCNA and compared that with the existing structures of other fungal and human PCNA. Our comparative structural and in-solution small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) analyses reveal that CaPCNA forms a stable homotrimer, both in crystal and in solution. It displays noticeable structural alterations in the oligomerisation interface, P-loop and hydrophobic pocket regions, suggesting its differential function in a heterologous system and avenues for developing specific therapeutics. DATABASES: The PDB and SASBDB accession codes for CaPCNA are 7BUP and SASDHQ9, respectively.

Human PCNA Structure, Function and Interactions.

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is an essential factor in DNA replication and repair. It forms a homotrimeric ring that embraces the DNA and slides along it, anchoring DNA polymerases and other DNA editing enzymes. It also interacts with regulatory proteins through a sequence motif known as PCNA Interacting Protein box (PIP-box). We here review the latest contributions to knowledge regarding the structure-function relationships in human PCNA, particularly the mechanism of sliding, and of the molecular recognition of canonical and non-canonical PIP motifs. The unique binding mode of the oncogene p15 is described in detail, and the implications of the recently discovered structure of PCNA bound to polymerase δ are discussed. The study of the post-translational modifications of PCNA and its partners may yield therapeutic opportunities in cancer treatment, in addition to illuminating the way PCNA coordinates the dynamic exchange of its many partners in DNA replication and repair.

Two chromatographic schemes for protein purification involving the biotin/avidin interaction under native conditions

The strength of the biotin/avidin interaction makes it an ideal tool for the purification of biotin-labeled proteins via avidin-coupled resin with high specificity and selectivity. Nevertheless, this tight binding comes at an extra cost of performing the elution step under denaturing conditions. Weakening the biotin/avidin interaction improves the elution conditions, but only to mild or harsh denaturing buffers with the drawback of reducing the specificity and selectivity of this interaction. Here, we present two chromatographic protein purification schemes that are well-suited for application under native conditions thus preserving the strength of the biotin/avidin interaction. In the first scheme, we introduce a biotin-labeled SUMO-tag to each of human flap endonuclease 1 and Escherichia coli replication termination protein Tus, and elute both proteins by performing on-resin cleavage using SUMO protease. In the second scheme, we immobilize biotin-labeled human proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) on the avidin-coupled resin and use the resulting resin as a tag-free affinity method to purify the PCNA-binding protein human DNA Ligase 1. Furthermore, we streamlined the protein biotinylation protocol by constructing a single plasmid expression system that ensures high level of expression and solubility for each of the target protein bearing the biotin-tag and the enzyme responsible for the in vivo biotinylation reaction. Both chromatographic schemes resulted in a high yield of pure proteins in their native form.

Targeting PCNA with Peptide Mimetics for Therapeutic Purposes.

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is an excellent inhibition target to shut down highly proliferative cells and thereby develop a broad-spectrum cancer therapeutic. It interacts with a wide variety of proteins through a conserved motif referred to as the PCNA-interacting protein (PIP) box. There is large sequence diversity between high-affinity PCNA binding partners, but with conservation of the binding structure-a well-defined 310 -helix. Herein, all current PIP-box peptides crystallised with human PCNA are collated to reveal common trends between binding structure and affinity. Key intra- and intermolecular hydrogen-bonding networks that stabilise the 310 -helix of PIP-box partners are highlighted and related back to the canonical PIP-box motif. High correlation with the canonical PIP-box sequence does not directly afford high affinity. Instead, we summarise key interactions that stabilise the binding structure that leads to enhanced PCNA binding affinity. These interactions also implicate the "non-conserved" residues within the PIP-box that have previously been overlooked. Such insights will allow a more directed approach to develop therapeutic PCNA inhibitors.

E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase TRIM21-mediated lysine capture by UBE2E1 reveals substrate-targeting mode of a ubiquitin-conjugating E2

The E3 ubiquitin-protein ligase TRIM21, of the RING-containing tripartite motif (TRIM) protein family, is a major autoantigen in autoimmune diseases and a modulator of innate immune signaling. Together with ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2 E1 (UBE2E1), TRIM21 acts both as an E3 ligase and as a substrate in autoubiquitination. We here report a 2.82-Å crystal structure of the human TRIM21 RING domain in complex with the human E2-conjugating UBE2E1 enzyme, in which a ubiquitin-targeted TRIM21 substrate lysine was captured in the UBE2E1 active site. The structure revealed that the direction of lysine entry is similar to that described for human proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), a small ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMO)-targeted substrate, and thus differs from the canonical SUMO-targeted substrate entry. In agreement, we found that critical UBE2E1 residues involved in the capture of the TRIM21 substrate lysine are conserved in ubiquitin-conjugating E2s, whereas residues critical for SUMOylation are not conserved. We noted that coordination of the acceptor lysine leads to remodeling of amino acid side-chain interactions between the UBE2E1 active site and the E2-E3 direct interface, including the so-called "linchpin" residue conserved in RING E3s and required for ubiquitination. The findings of our work support the notion that substrate lysine activation of an E2-E3-connecting allosteric path may trigger catalytic activity and contribute to the understanding of specific lysine targeting by ubiquitin-conjugating E2s.

Chemoproteomics Reveals the Antiproliferative Potential of Parkinson's Disease Kinase Inhibitor LRRK2-IN-1 by Targeting PCNA Protein.

LRRK2-IN-1, one of the first selective inhibitors of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), was serendipitously found to exhibit potent antiproliferative activity in several types of human cancer cells. In this study, we employed a chemoproteomic strategy utilizing a photoaffinity probe to identify the cellular target(s) of LRRK2-IN-1 underlying its anticancer activity. LRRK2-IN-1 was found to induce cell cycle arrest as well as cancer cell death by specifically binding to human proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) in cancer cells. Our current findings suggest the potential of LRRK2-IN-1 as a novel pharmacological molecule for scrutinizing cell physiology and furnish a logical foundation for the future development of therapeutic reagents for cancer.

Selective inhibition T2AA for human PCNA over PCNA homolog in Trypanosoma brucei

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) coordinates many functions including cell cycle progression and DNA replication in eukaryotic cells. Inhibition of the PCNA protein function in Trypanosoma brucei could be a new strategy in controlling Human African Trypanosomiasis. In the present study, we explored the function of TbPCNA by deregulation the protein expression through the overexpression, and by applying the small molecule inhibition. Overexpression of human PCNA or T. brucei PCNA wild-type proteins inhibits the parasite proliferation. On the other hand, T. brucei that overexpress the HsPCNA M40A or TbPCNA M40A mutants grew normally, indicating that inhibition of PIP-box protein interaction is important for the lethal phenotype. In testing this hypothesis, we applied the small molecule inhibitor T2 amino alcohol (T2AA). Proliferation in parasites that overexpress HsPCNA resumed after T2AA treatment, but not parasites that overexpressed TbPCNA. We concluded that T2AA selectively inhibits HsPCNA not TbPCNA. This data presented here will be a prerequisite for investigating TbPCNA interacting proteins and discovering inhibitors that specifically target TbPCNA to kill the parasite.

Inhibition of DNA replication by an anti-PCNA aptamer/PCNA complex.

Proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) is a multifunctional protein present in the nuclei of eukaryotic cells that plays an important role as a component of the DNA replication machinery, as well as DNA repair systems. PCNA was recently proposed as a potential non-oncogenic target for anti-cancer therapy. In this study, using the Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (SELEX) method, we developed a short DNA aptamer that binds human PCNA. In the presence of PCNA, the anti-PCNA aptamer inhibited the activity of human DNA polymerase δ and ϵ at nM concentrations. Moreover, PCNA protected the anti-PCNA aptamer against the exonucleolytic activity of these DNA polymerases. Investigation of the mechanism of anti-PCNA aptamer-dependent inhibition of DNA replication revealed that the aptamer did not block formation, but was a component of PCNA/DNA polymerase δ or ϵ complexes. Additionally, the anti-PCNA aptamer competed with the primer-template DNA for binding to the PCNA/DNA polymerase δ or ϵ complex. Based on the observations, a model of anti-PCNA aptamer/PCNA complex-dependent inhibition of DNA replication was proposed.

Monitoring the Retention of Human Proliferating Cell Nuclear Antigen at Primer/Template Junctions by Proteins That Bind Single-Stranded DNA.

In humans, proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) sliding clamps encircling DNA coordinate various aspects of DNA metabolism throughout the cell cycle. A critical aspect of this is restricting PCNA to the vicinity of its DNA target site. For example, PCNA must be maintained at or near primer/template (P/T) junctions during DNA synthesis. With a diverse array of cellular factors implicated, many of which interact with PCNA, DNA, or both, it is unknown how this critical feat is achieved. Furthermore, current biochemical assays that examine the retention of PCNA near P/T junctions are inefficient, discontinuous, and qualitative and significantly deviate from physiologically relevant conditions. To overcome these challenges and limitations, we recently developed a novel and convenient Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay that directly and continuously monitors the retention of human PCNA at a P/T junction. Here we describe in detail the design, methodology, interpretation, and limitations of this quantitative FRET assay using the single-stranded DNA-binding protein, SSB, from Escherichia coli as an example. This powerful tool is broadly applicable to any single-stranded DNA-binding protein and may be utilized and/or expanded upon to dissect DNA metabolic pathways that are dependent upon PCNA.

Interaction of proliferating cell nuclear antigen with PMS2 is required for MutLα activation and function in mismatch repair

Eukaryotic MutLα (mammalian MLH1-PMS2 heterodimer; MLH1-PMS1 in yeast) functions in early steps of mismatch repair as a latent endonuclease that requires a mismatch, MutSα/β, and DNA-loaded proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) for activation. We show here that human PCNA and MutLα interact specifically but weakly in solution to form a complex of approximately 1:1 stoichiometry that depends on PCNA interaction with the C-terminal endonuclease domain of the MutLα PMS2 subunit. Amino acid substitution mutations within a PMS2 C-terminal 721QRLIAP motif attenuate or abolish human MutLα interaction with PCNA, as well as PCNA-dependent activation of MutLα endonuclease, PCNA- and DNA-dependent activation of MutLα ATPase, and MutLα function in in vitro mismatch repair. Amino acid substitution mutations within the corresponding yeast PMS1 motif (723QKLIIP) reduce or abolish mismatch repair in vivo. Coupling of a weak allele within this motif (723AKLIIP) with an exo1Δ null mutation, which individually confer only weak mutator phenotypes, inactivates mismatch repair in the yeast cell.

Replication Protein A Prohibits Diffusion of the PCNA Sliding Clamp along Single-Stranded DNA.

The replicative polymerases cannot accommodate distortions to the native DNA sequence such as modifications (lesions) to the native template bases from exposure to reactive metabolites and environmental mutagens. Consequently, DNA synthesis on an afflicted template abruptly stops upon encountering these lesions, but the replication fork progresses onward, exposing long stretches of the damaged template before eventually stalling. Such arrests may be overcome by translesion DNA synthesis (TLS) in which specialized TLS polymerases bind to the resident proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) and replicate the damaged DNA. Hence, a critical aspect of TLS is maintaining PCNA at or near a blocked primer/template (P/T) junction upon uncoupling of fork progression from DNA synthesis by the replicative polymerases. The single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) binding protein, replication protein A (RPA), coats the exposed template and might prohibit diffusion of PCNA along the single-stranded DNA adjacent to a blocked P/T junction. However, this idea had yet to be directly tested. We recently developed a unique Cy3-Cy5 Forster resonance energy transfer (FRET) pair that directly reports on the occupancy of DNA by PCNA. In this study, we utilized this FRET pair to directly and continuously monitor the retention of human PCNA at a blocked P/T junction. Results from extensive steady state and pre-steady state FRET assays indicate that RPA binds tightly to the ssDNA adjacent to a blocked P/T junction and restricts PCNA to the upstream duplex region by physically blocking diffusion of PCNA along ssDNA.

Quaternary structures of human cytoplasmic and nuclear PCNA are the same

Properties and mechanisms of PCNA (proliferating cell nuclear antigen) functions have been investigated for a long time and are studied in great detail. As follows from its name, most known PCNA functions (DNA replication, DNA repair, DNA recombination and others) are connected with cell proliferation and localization of this protein in nuclei. In addition, there is good reason to believe that PCNA also performs some functions in the cytoplasm. However, the possible role and mechanisms of PCNA action in the cytoplasm require careful study and clarification. Interestingly, such cells as neutrophils differ in that they are non-dividing on one hand and on the other hand contain a rather large amount of PCNA, which is localized only in the cytoplasm, that is, they are an ideal model for the study of cytoplasmic PCNA. Using cross-linkages with formaldehyde, we showed that this cytoplasmic PCNA is cross-linked in a similar way, that is, organized in the same way as the nuclear PCNA that is present in the proliferating cells. Previously, we showed that PCNA in such cells is organized into a dynamic complex of double trimer on the basis of the back-to-back principle (Naryzhny S.N. et al. (2005) J. Biol. Chem., 280, 13888). Apparently, such organization of this hub-protein allows it to better coordinate the processes taking place in the cytoplasm as well.

Low Dose of Bisphenol A Activates NF-κB/IL-6 Signals to Increase Malignancy of Neuroblastoma Cells

Bisphenol A (BPA) can accumulate in the human body and promote the progression of various cancers. However, its role in the development of neuroblastoma (NB) is largely unknown. Our present study revealed that nanomolar concentrations of BPA can significantly increase the proliferation, migration and invasion of NB SH-SY5Y and SiMa cells, further evidenced by the upregulation of human proliferating cell nuclear antigen, Bcl-2, vimentin and fibronectin. Real-time PCR and ELISA results suggested that nanomolar BPA can increase the expression of interleukin-6 (IL-6), but had no effect on the expression of IL-2, IL-8, IL-10 or IL-12. The neutralization antibody of IL-6 can abolish BPA-induced proliferation and invasion of NB cells. The inhibitor of NF-κB (BAY 11-7082), but not PD98059 (PD, ERK1/2 inhibitor) or LY294002 (LY, PI3K/Akt inhibitor), attenuated BPA-induced IL-6 expression and cell proliferation and invasion. In addition, BPA treatment also rapidly increased the phosphorylation of p65 since treatment for 5 min. Collectively, our data revealed that nanomolar BPA can trigger the malignancy of NB cells via activation of NF-κB/IL-6 signals, suggesting that more attention should be paid to the potential health risks of daily BPA intake.

Crystal structure of human PCNA in complex with the PIP box of DVC1

In higher eukaryotes, DVC1 (SPRTN, Spartan or C1orf124) is implicated in the translesion synthesis (TLS) pathway. DVC1 localizes to sites of DNA damage, binds to the proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) via its conserved PCNA-interacting motif (PIP box), and associates with ubiquitin selective segregase p97 and other factors, thus regulating translesion synthesis polymerases. Here, we report the crystal structure of human PCNA in complex with a peptide (321SNSHQNVLSNYFPRVS336) derived from human DVC1 that contains a unique YF type PIP box. Structural analysis reveals the detailed PIP box-PCNA interaction. Interestingly, substitution of Y331 with Phe severely reduces its PCNA binding affinity. These findings offer new insights into the determinants of PIP box for PCNA binding.