Human Milk Analyzer Research Articles

Macronutrient concentrations in human milk beyond the first half year of lactation: a cohort study

ObjectiveHuman milk composition is dynamic. While extensive research has focused on its macronutrient concentrations during the first 6 months of lactation, limited research exists for extended lactation periods. This study...

1H NMR-Based Metabolomic Profiling and Comparison of Human Milk across Different Lactation Stages in Secretors and Nonsecretors: A Study of Chinese Lactating Women

BackgroundHuman milk oligosaccharides (HMOs) and other milk-derived metabolites are crucial for infant health, influencing gut microbiota and overall development. ObjectiveThis study aimed to uncover insights into the variations of HMOs and non-HMO metabolites based on secretor (Se) status, lactation time, mode of delivery, and infant sex. MethodsAn exploratory cross-sectional study was designed to compare the concentrations of HMOs and non-HMOs metabolites in milk samples from 129 lactating Chinese women within 1 y postpartum. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis was employed for the identification and quantification of the metabolites. The metabolites measured were grouped into sugars, free amino acids, fatty acids, and metabolites related to energy metabolism. The influences of delivery mode and infant sex on milk metabolite composition were explored. ResultsUniform Manifold Approximation and Projection analysis of HMOs profiles revealed distinct clustering based on Se status, with significant differences in 2′-fucosyllactose (2′-FL) and 3-fucosyllactose (3-FL) concentrations observed between Se+ and Se– groups. A decreasing trend for 2′-FL and 6′-sialyllactose concentrations, along with an increase in 3-FL concentrations, was observed with increasing lactating period within 12 mo postpartum. Non-HMOs metabolite analysis indicated that Se status only affected glutamate concentrations. An increase in glutamine concentrations was observed 3–9 mo postpartum. A continuous increase in o-phosphocholine concentrations was noted in 12 mo postpartum, along with reductions in citrate and sn-glycero-phosphocholine concentrations. Delivery mode and infant sex did not affect both HMOs and non-HMOs concentrations. ConclusionsMetabolomic analysis of human milk reveals significant variation of HMOs, but not in non-HMOs, based on Se status. Changes in certain HMOs and non-HMOs concentrations were also observed over the 1 y of lactation. Understanding how these metabolites change over time may influence recommendations for maternal diet, supplementation, and the timing of breastfeeding to ensure optimal nutrient delivery to the infant.

Microbiological analysis of donor human milk over seven years from the Hearts Milk Bank (United Kingdom)

When maternal milk is unavailable, donor human milk (DHM) from human milk banks (HMBs) is the optimal alternative, as recommended by the World Health Organisation. The microbiota of DHM could contain opportunistic pathogens, which means rigorous microbiological screening for DHM, prior to pasteurisation, is recommended to safeguard recipients. Here, an analysis of 6863 DHM samples from 1419 donors at the Hearts Milk Bank between 2017 and 2023 showed approximately 70.1% of samples exhibited a total viable count (TVC) between 10³-10⁵ CFU/mL, while 18.3% yielded no growth; 11.5% of samples exceeded the 10⁵ CFU/mL threshold. Staphylococcus was the most prevalent genus, with S. epidermidis found in 61.5% of samples. A significant (p < 0.05) negative co-occurrence was observed between S. epidermidis and Gram-negative opportunistic pathogens. Overall, 16.8% of DHM samples failed to meet UK microbiological screening criteria, with 68.3% of these failures due to exceeding TVC thresholds. S. epidermidis accounted for approximately 10.2% of the total failed samples. The majority of DHM samples met the current microbiological criteria specified in the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) clinical guidance (CG93), “Donor milk banks: service operation”. The core species in DHM reflects microorganisms typically found on the skin. These findings highlight that the current UK thresholds and criteria could potentially be modified to increase the available supply of DHM without increasing microbiological risk.

Fat Content and Energy Calculation in Pasteurized Human Milk: Comparison Between Infrared Analysis and Creamatocrit Method.

Aims: This study aimed to analyze and compare the quantity of energy and fat using the infrared analysis and creamatocrit method in pasteurized human milk (HM) samples. Methods: This cross-sectional study analyzed 1,858 pasteurized human samples from 317 mothers at a single center. Infrared transmission spectrophotometry (Miris, Human Milk Analyser [HMA], Uppsala, Sweden) and the creamatocrit method were used to evaluate the quantity of energy and fat in pasteurized HM samples. Results: The average age of donor mothers was 29.7 ± 5.1 years, and the median duration of lactation was 22 days (interquartile range [IQ]: 7.7-59.2). Full-term births were observed in 196 (95.1%) of the women. The values of energy (difference: +8.96 kcal/dL, 95% CI: 8.52-9.44 kcal/dL; p < 0.001) and fat (difference: +0.40 g/dL, 95% CI: 0.35-0.45 g/dL; p < 0.001) in HM samples obtained by Miris were higher than those by the creamatocrit method. The energy calculated and the fat measured by Miris in the HM samples correlated moderately and directly with the obtained by creamatocrit (fat, r = 0.585; p < 0.001 and energy, r = 0.591; p < 0.01). The linear regression, adjusted for maternal age and lactation time, showed that the energy values calculated by creamatocrit were directly associated with those of Miris (energy kcal/dL = 38.43 + [0.516 × kcal/dL of creamatocrit]). Conclusion: The energy and fat quantity of pasteurized HM samples obtained by the creamatocrit and infrared methods were significantly correlated. However, the values calculated by the creamatocrit method were significantly lower than those by the infrared analyzer.

Untargeted metabolomic analysis of human milk from healthy mothers reveals drivers of metabolite variability

Understanding the human milk metabolome can help inform infant nutrition and health. Untargeted metabolomics was used to study breast milk from 31 healthy participants to assess the shared metabolites in milk from participants with various backgrounds and understand how different demographic, health, and environmental factors impact the milk metabolome. Breast milk samples were analyzed by four separate UPLC-MS/MS methods. Metabolite Set Enrichment Analysis was used to study the most and least variable metabolites. The associations between participant factors and the metabolome were assessed with redundancy analyses. Among all 31 participants and between each untargeted UPLC-MS/MS method, 731 metabolites were detected, of which 389 were shared among all participants. Of the shared metabolites, lactose was the least and lactobionate the most variable metabolite. In the biological super pathway analysis, xenobiotics were the most variable metabolites. Infant age, maternal age, number of live births, and pre-pregnancy BMI were associated with the milk metabolome. In conclusion, the most variable metabolites originate from environmental exposures while the well-conserved core metabolites are linked to cell metabolism or are crucial for infant nutrition and osmoregulation. Understanding the variability of the breast milk metabolome can help identify components that are crucial for infant nutrition, growth, and development.

Adjusted versus Targeted Fortification in Extremely Low Birth Weight Preterm Infants: Fortin Study-A Randomized Clinical Trial.

Fortified human milk is the first choice for preterm infants. Although individualized fortification is recommended, the optimal method for this population remains uncertain. We conducted a comparative study assessing the growth effects of adjusted (AF) and targeted fortification (TF) in extremely low birth weight (ELBW) infants. This single-center, randomized, controlled clinical trial was conducted at a tertiary neonatal unit in Spain. Eligible participants were premature infants with a birthweight of <1000 g exclusively fed with human milk. A total of 38 patients were enrolled, 15 of them randomized to AF group and 23 to TF group. AF was based on blood urea nitrogen (BUN) concentration and TF on human milk analysis. The primary outcome was weight gain velocity (g/kg/day). No significant differences were found in weight gain velocity at 28 days, at 36 weeks of postmenstrual age, at discharge, nor during the intervention. Protein intake was significantly higher in the AF group (5.02 g/kg/day vs. 4.48 g/kg/day, p = 0.001). No differences were found in the lipid, carbohydrate, and energy intake; in the weight z score change between the different time points; nor in the length and head circumference growth. Both AF and TF are comparable methods of fortification and provide the appropriate growth rate in ELBW infants.

Comparative proteomic analysis of donor human milk treated by high-pressure processing or Holder pasteurization on undigested proteins across dynamic simulated preterm infant digestion

High-pressure processing (HPP) of donor human milk (DM) minimally impacts the concentration and bioactivity of some important bioactive proteins including lactoferrin, and bile salt-stimulated lipase (BSSL) compared to Holder pasteurization (HoP), yet the impact of HPP and subsequent digestion on the full array of proteins detectable by proteomics remains unclear. We investigated how HPP impacts undigested proteins in DM post-processing and across digestion by proteomic analysis. Each pool of milk (n = 3) remained raw, or was treated by HPP (500 MPa, 10 min) or HoP (62.5 °C, 30 min), and underwent dynamic in vitro digestion simulating the preterm infant. In the meal, major proteins were minimally changed post-processing. HPP-treated milk proteins better resisted proximal digestion (except for immunoglobulins, jejunum 180 min) and the extent of undigested proteins after gastric digestion of major proteins in HPP-treated milk was more similar to raw (e.g., BSSL, lactoferrin, macrophage-receptor-1, CD14, complement-c3/c4, xanthine dehydrogenase) than HoP.

A simple step to improve fat and energy delivery of human milk delivered via bottle-feeding pump: An experimental study.

Enteral feeding pump systems deliver decreased amounts of macronutrients in human milk to neonates. This study determined the macronutrient loss associated with a bottle-feeding pump system and the effect of manually mixing the human milk during extended feeds. Macronutrient content from samples of donor human milk was analyzed after simulated extended feeds with a bottle-feeding pump system, using a human milk analyzer. Simulations were repeated using manual mixing of the bottle every 30 min during feeding. The percentage of the baseline was calculated, and one-sample t tests and analysis of variance compared the effect of manual mixing and the duration of feeding on macronutrient delivery. The delivery of fat and energy was lower over time, but manual mixing considerably improved retention. The length of feeding impacted fat delivery, with less fat delivered over time (P < 0.001). Manually mixing significantly increased fat delivery (P < 0.001). Similar results were found for energy, with a significant reduction in energy delivery over time (P < 0.001) and significantly more energy delivered with mixing (P < 0.001). Mixing and the duration of feeding had minimal effect on protein or carbohydrate delivery. Bottle-feeding pump systems are associated with a significant reduction in the delivery of fat and energy of donor human milk. The manual mixing of donor human milk during prolonged feeds is a simple way to improve fat and energy delivery to the neonate.

Composition of breast milk from mothers of premature and full-term infants and its influence in Z-Scores for infant physical growth

BackgroundBreast milk contains various crucial nutrients and biologically active substances and is ideal for newborns. This study aimed to analyze the composition of breast milk from mothers of premature and full-term infants and its influences on the growth of infants.MethodsInfant-mother dyads examined at our Hospital (March 2016 to May 2017) were included. Milk was collected at 0–1 month, 2–3 months, and 5–6 months and analyzed using a MIRIS human milk analyzer. Z-scores of weight-for-length (WLZ), weight-for-age (WAZ), and length-for-age (LAZ) were calculated.ResultsThis study included full-term (> 37 weeks of gestation, n = 177) and premature (< 37 weeks, n = 94) infant-mother dyads. The premature infants showed higher ΔWAZ, ΔLAZ, and ΔWLZ from infancy to toddlerhood for the physical growth speed, compared with term infants (P < 0.001). All proteins and true protein components of breast milk decreased with infants’ age (P < 0.001). For premature and full-term infants, differences in ΔWAZ and ΔLAZ from birth to infancy and the difference in ΔLAZ, WAZ, and LAZ in toddlerhood were positively associated with non-protein nitrogen (NPN) (all P < 0.05), while the Z-score differences in ΔWLZ from birth to infancy were negatively associated with NPN (all P < 0.05). For premature babies, from birth to infancy stage, ΔWAZ was positively correlated with NPN and carbohydrates while negatively correlated with dry matter (all P < 0.05), and ΔLAZ correlated with NPN (β = 0.428, P = 0.005).ConclusionBreastfeeding helped premature infants compensatory growth when compared to term infants. Whileduring early infancy stage ΔWLZ gain was negatively associated with increased amounts of NPN in breast milk. This might mean although NPN increase the Z-scores of weight-for-age and length-for-age, with no rise in adipose tissue mass.

Human Milk Composition Is Associated with Maternal Body Mass Index in a Cross-Sectional, Untargeted Metabolomics Analysis of Human Milk from Guatemalan Mothers

BackgroundMaternal overweight and obesity has been associated with poor lactation performance including delayed lactogenesis and reduced duration. However, the effect on human milk composition is less well understood. ObjectivesWe evaluated the relationship of maternal BMI on the human milk metabolome among Guatemalan mothers. MethodsWe used data from 75 Guatemalan mothers who participated in the Household Air Pollution Intervention Network trial. Maternal BMI was measured between 9 and <20 weeks of gestation. Milk samples were collected at a single time point using aseptic collection from one breast at 6 mo postpartum and analyzed using high-resolution mass spectrometry. A cross-sectional untargeted high-resolution metabolomics analysis was performed by coupling hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC) and reverse phase C18 chromatography with mass spectrometry. Metabolic features associated with maternal BMI were determined by a metabolome-wide association study (MWAS), adjusting for baseline maternal age, education, and dietary diversity, and perturbations in metabolic pathways were identified by pathway enrichment analysis. ResultsThe mean age of participants at baseline was 23.62 ± 3.81 y, and mean BMI was 24.27 ± 4.22 kg/m2. Of the total metabolic features detected by HILIC column (19,199 features) and by C18 column (11,594 features), BMI was associated with 1026 HILIC and 500 C18 features. Enriched pathways represented amino acid metabolism, galactose metabolism, and xenobiotic metabolic metabolism. However, no significant features were identified after adjusting for multiple comparisons using the Benjamini–Hochberg false discovery rate procedure (FDRBH < 0.2). ConclusionsFindings from this untargeted MWAS indicate that maternal BMI is associated with metabolic perturbations of galactose metabolism, xenobiotic metabolism, and xenobiotic metabolism by cytochrome p450 and biosynthesis of amino acid pathways. Significant metabolic pathway alterations detected in human milk were associated with energy metabolism-related pathways including carbohydrate and amino acid metabolism.This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02944682.

The Concentration of Lactoferrin in Breast Milk Correlates with Maternal Body Mass Index and Parity.

Background: Lactoferrin (LF) is a multifunctional glycoprotein found in human milk and body fluids, which has been shown to play a vital role in regulating the immunity and supporting the intestinal health of infants. Aim: This study evaluated the association between maternal/parturient factors and LF concentration in the breast milk of Chinese mothers. Methods: 207 breast milk samples were collected from healthy mothers with in the first year of lactation. Maternal and parturient information was collected for these participants through questionnaires. The content of lactoferrin in breast milk was detected by liquid chromatography, and macronutrient concentration in breast milk was measured by human milk analyzer in only 109 samples. Results: Our findings demonstrated that the LF content was much higher within the first month of lactation than it was after that period (p < 0.05). When compared with normal and lean mothers, the LF content of obese mothers was considerably higher (p < 0.05). The parity and LF content showed a favorable correlation. The proportion of LF to total protein tended to decrease as lactation progressed. Protein, fat, dry matter, and energy content were significantly positively correlated with LF content (p < 0.001). Conclusion: Early breast milk tends to have a higher level of LF, and the change of LF concentration in breast milk is associated with the parity and body mass index of the mother.

Changes in the Concentration of fat, Protein and Carbohydrates During the Excretion of Milk by Vacuum Breast Pump and Breast Pump with Compression

Background: The purpose of the work is to investigate the contents of the main nutrients of milk (fat, protein, lactose), as well as the energy value of milk in the process of expression milk using an vacuum electric breast pump and vacuum electric breast pump with compression pulses simultaneously. Method: Surveys were conducted on 9 women 5-8 weeks of lactation. The analysis was carried out in 10 ml samples of milk, which were continuously expression with breast pump «Laktopuls»: only with vacuum stimuli, and simultaneously with vacuum and compression stimuli. The sampling continuity was ensured by a specially developed procedure. Milk analysis in the samples was performed 1-1.5 hours after gland expression on a Miris AB Uppsala, Sweden, human milk analyzer. Finding: The largest changes in milk samples were observed in fat concentration. The fat content in milk increased in each subsequent sample and in the latter samples could exceed its content in the initial samples by 3-4 times. The total amount of fat was about 25% more when milk ejected by breast pump with vacuum and compression stimuli than with vacuum stimulus only. When determining the protein concentration in milk samples, an increase in its concentration was also found during milk ejection, but on 10-20%. In contrast to the dynamics of fat and protein concentrations, the carbohydrate concentration did not change in all women during the milk ejection. Conclusion: A method has been developed that allows analyzing milk nutrients during the continuous removal of milk from the gland. Surveys have shown that ejection of milk with breast pump with vacuum and compression stimuli, increases the amount of fat and protein in breast milk.

PsyNBIOsis: Investigating the Association between Maternal Gestational Diabetes, Mental Health, Diet and Childhood Obesity Risk: Protocol for a Prospective, Longitudinal, Observational Study.

Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is associated with poorer maternal mental health (depression and anxiety). Maternal mental health and GDM are likely to influence diet, which in turn impacts the course of GDM. Maternal diet may also be directly or indirectly associated with changes in infant anthropometry. The aims of this study are to (1) examine the associations between maternal GDM, mental health and diet, and (2) evaluate the associations between these maternal factors, breastmilk composition and infant anthropometry. This prospective, observational, longitudinal cohort study compares a cohort of women with and without GDM. Maternal mental health and diet are assessed using validated questionnaires. Breastmilk composition is measured with the Human Milk Analyzer, and infant body composition is measured with air displacement plethysmography. Once data have been collected, PsyNBIOsis will provide evidence for the associations between maternal mental health, GDM status and diet, and their impact on breastmilk composition and early infant growth. The results may inform the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease framework and provide data on which to build cost-effective interventions to prevent both the development of mental health issues in mothers and adverse growth patterns in infants.

Preterm human milk analysis confirms that all examined components change within four weeks of life

Introduction and objective: Human milk contains all the nutrients and bioactive components required for the optimal growth and development of newborns. It is also an optimal source of nutrition in premature infants, however it does not fully meet their nutritional demands. Studies have shown that infants fed exclusively human milk have better enteral nutrition tolerance, lower risk of necrotising enterocolitis, and improved neurodevelopmental outcomes. The aim of the study was to analyse preterm content of human milk collected from women as part of a randomised controlled trial assessing tailored nutrition. Materials and methods: We studied 726 samples from 39 mothers of premature infants during their first postnatal four weeks. Infants were assigned to standard or tailored enteral nutrition, but all mothers were asked to pool milk samples from full breast expression at each feed across a 24-hour period twice a week. Glucose, fat, protein, and energy levels were measured using the Miris Human Milk Analyser and compared to published values. We assessed the relationship between postnatal week and human milk content. Results: Protein content decreased over time. Median protein at four weeks of postnatal age was 1.37 and 1.32 per 100 mL (tailored vs. standard group, respectively). Lipid content increased over time. Median lipid content at four weeks of postnatal age was 4.06 and 3.82 per 100 mL (tailored vs. standard group). Glucose remained stable. Energy content increased over time only in the tailored group. Median energy at four weeks of postnatal age was 73.35 per 100 mL. Conclusions: Variations in human milk content exist between populations and should be considered when prescribing enteral nutrition in preterm infants.

Factors affecting total protein and lactoferrin in human milk

The aim of this study was to investigate factors affecting total, true protein and lactoferrin (Lf) concentrations in human milk (HM) and to evaluate the changes in protein concentrations over the course of lactation (first to sixth month postpartum). HM samples were collected from exclusively breastfeeding mothers during six time periods (1–6 months postpartum); 198 breast milk samples were collected in total. The concentrations of total and true protein in HM were determined using the MIRIS human milk analyzer (HMA). The assessment of HM protein content was also performed in skim HM samples and quantified by bicinchoninic methods with the Bicinchoninic Acid Protein Assay Kit. In turn, Lf content in skim HM samples was determined by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in accordance with a slightly modified procedure. In the first month of lactation total protein concentration was negatively correlated with maternal pre-pregnancy BMI (r = − 0.397; p = 0.022), whereas in the third month postpartum, positive correlation with maternal age was found (r = 0.399; p = 0.021). Considering Lf concentration, in the first month of lactation, it was positively correlated with baby’s birth weight (r = 0.514; p = 0.002). In the next months (from second to sixth) no relationships between Lf concentration and maternal and infants’ factors were observed. The concentration of protein and Lf in HM changes dynamically throughout lactation. Maternal and infant characteristics may impact the HM protein and Lf content, especially in the first month postpartum.

A descriptive analysis of human milk dispensed by the Leipzig Donor Human Milk Bank for neonates between 2012 and 2019.

Human milk banking has become an important aspect of Nutritional medicine. It is not just about the provision of mother's own milk (MOM) or donor human milk (DHM) in the hospital, but also a strategy to encourage breastfeeding in the clinical setting and beyond. To describe the feeding patterns of hospitalised infants including human milk dispensed by the Leipzig Donor Human Milk Bank (LMB). A descriptive analysis of daily data on milk feeds dispensed by LMB for hospitalised infants distinguishing between MOM or DHM, either fresh or frozen, and raw/pasteurised milk from 2012-2019. We included 2,562 infants with median hospitalisation of 23 days, for whom human milk was dispensed on median 76% of those days and other nutrition on the remaining days. Raw MOM and raw DHM comprised 52% and 8% of the dispensed milk, respectively. Dispensing exclusive DHM instead of MOM for at least one full day was required for 55% of the infants, mostly at the beginning but also later during hospitalisation. Exclusive raw DHM was dispensed on at least 1 day for 37% of the infants, in different birthweight strata <1,000 g: 10%, 1,000-1500 g: 11%, 1,500-2500 g: 13% and > 2,500 g: 3%. At discharge, MOM was dispensed for more than 60% of the infants. During an infant's hospital stay, LMB dispenses various human milk feeds with interspersed DHM resulting in complex intra-individual and time-variant feeding patterns. LMB dispenses raw MOM and especially raw DHM with the intention to retain the properties of human milk unlike a diet containing pasteurised DHM and/or formula. Although raw DHM comprises a small percentage of all dispensed milk, raw DHM is dispensed for a substantial portion of infants. Our results document that dispensing raw DHM, is possible in routine settings.

Macronutrient content of pasteurised donor human milk: Variability between batches from single-donor pools at an Australian milk bank.

This study aimed to characterise the between-batch variability of pasteurised donor human milk (PDHM) produced from single-donor pools at Australian Red Cross Lifeblood's milk bank and identify key donor characteristics that predict macronutrient content. Macronutrient content from 200 batches of PDHM was measured using a mid-infrared human milk analyser (Miris, Uppsala, Sweden). Linear mixed models were used to study the impact of stage of lactation and gestational age on macronutrient content. Coefficients of determination (R2 ) were calculated to estimate the impact of the individual donor on overall variability. Macronutrient content of PDHM varied considerably, with between-batch variations of 2.8 and 6.4-fold for protein and fat content, respectively. Mean crude protein content was 1.16 g/100 mL, ranging from 0.7 to 1.96 g/100 mL. Mean fat content was 3.85 g/100 mL, ranging from 1.46 to 9.39 g/100 mL. Stage of lactation was identified as a predictor for protein content and gestational age at birth for fat content. Individual donor effect explained 55 and 35% of the variance for fat and protein content, respectively. This study highlights the variation in macronutrient content in PDHM at an Australian milk bank. Variability could be reduced through the implementation of targeted multiple-donor pooling using the key donor characteristics identified in this study along with the measurement of macronutrient content of individual donors at the time of first donation. However, the clinical benefit of a reduction in between-batch variation, achieved through multiple-donor pooling, would need to be assessed to justify additional efforts associated with PDHM processing changes.

Characterization of the odor compounds in human milk by DHS/GC × GC-O-MS: A feasible and efficient method

Odor analysis of human milk (HM) is often challenging. Here, a new strategy for the analysis of odorants in HM using dynamic headspace sampling combined with comprehensive two-dimensional gas chromatography–olfactometry-mass spectrometry (DHS/GC × GC-O-MS) was established based on the comparison of different extraction methods and instrument modes. Overall, DHS/GC × GC-O-MS was proved to be able to provide higher extraction efficiency and better analytical results of the odor-active compounds (OACs) in HM, meanwhile, the salt addition during the extraction further promoted the release of the odorants. Twenty key OACs in HM were identified by flavor dilution analysis and odor activity calculation, of which 1-octen-3-one, 2,3-butanedione, (E)-2-nonenal, and nonanal contributed significantly to the odor of HM. In addition, 2,3-pentanedione was detected as a key OAC in HM for the first time. This study provided a powerful analytical strategy for the comprehensive odor analysis of HM.

A nutritional supplement taken during preconception and pregnancy influences human milk macronutrients in women with overweight/obesity and gestational diabetes mellitus.

Maternal overweight/obesity and gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) are associated with an increased risk of their offspring developing overweight/obesity or type 2 diabetes later in life. However, the impacts of maternal overweight/obesity and dysglycemia on human milk (HM) macronutrient composition are not well understood. Through a double-blind randomised controlled trial, we investigated the effects of maternal supplementation from preconception throughout pregnancy until birth on HM macronutrient concentrations, in association with maternal and infant factors including maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) and GDM status. In addition, we aimed to characterise longitudinal changes in HM macronutrients. The control supplement contained calcium, iodine, iron, β-carotene, and folic acid. The intervention supplement additionally contained zinc, vitamins B2, B6, B12, and D3, probiotics, and myo-inositol. HM samples were collected across seven time points from 1 week to 12 months from Singapore and/or New Zealand. HM macronutrient concentrations were measured using a MIRIS Human Milk Analyser. Potential differences in HM macronutrient concentrations were assessed using linear mixed models with a repeated measures design. Overall, HM macronutrient concentrations were similar between control and intervention groups. Among the control group, overweight/obesity and GDM were associated with higher HM fat and energy concentrations over the first 3 months. Such associations were not observed among the intervention group. Of note, mothers with GDM in the intervention group had lower HM fat by 10% (p = 0.049) and energy by 6% (p = 0.029) than mothers with GDM in the control group. Longitudinal changes in HM macronutrient concentrations over 12 months of lactation in New Zealand showed that HM fat and energy decreased in the first 6 months then increased until 12 months. HM lactose gradually decreased from 1 week to 12 months while crude protein decreased from 1 week to 6 months then remained relatively constant until 12 months of lactation. Maternal overweight/obesity or GDM were associated with increased HM fat and energy levels. We speculate the intervention taken during preconception and pregnancy altered the impact of maternal BMI or GDM status on HM macronutrient composition. Further studies are required to identify the mechanisms underlying altered HM macronutrient concentration in the intervention group and to determine any long-term effects on offspring health. ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT02509988, Universal Trial Number U1111-1171-8056. Registered on 16 July 2015. This is an academic-led study by the EpiGen Global Research Consortium.

Changes in Mature Human Milk Macronutrient Composition over 45 years in an Urban Population in Indonesia.

With improvement in a population's welfare, its food consumption patterns may change, including those of nursing mothers. This, in turn, could influence their human milk composition. To investigate the secular trend in macronutrient composition of mature human milk from mothers of healthy, full-term infants in urban populations in Indonesia from 1974 and 2019. We compared the macronutrient composition of mature human milk of healthy full-term infants from 1974 and 2019. The data from 2019 used the Human Milk Analyzer MIRIS to quantify the milk's carbohydrate, fat, and protein content, while the historical data used methods available at that time, that is, methods described by Benedict, Gerber and Kjeldahl, respectively. There were no significant differences in carbohydrate, protein and fat content across categories of maternal nutritional status in the respective periods. However, the fat content of human milk from 2019 was significantly higher than that of 1974 (4.7 g/dl, SD = 1.7 g/dl vs. 3.3 g/dl, SD = 1.1 g/dl; p < 0.001), while its carbohydrate content was significantly lower (6.2 g/dl, SD = 2.1 g/dl vs. 7.1 g/dl, SD = 0.2 g/dl; p < 0.001). There was no difference in the protein content between the two periods (1.4 g/dl, SD = 0.5 g/dl vs. 1.6 g/dl, SD = 0.3 g/dl; p = 0.491). The mature human milk from 2019 has a higher fat and total energy content but lower carbohydrate content than those observed 4 decades ago. The protein content remained the same.