Human Eyeblink Research Articles

Deep fakes Detection Using Human Eye Blinking Pattern: Deep Vision

Abstract: Deepfake technology is developing rapidly and has the ability to create fake videos that pose a threat to people. Modern depth detection methods often rely on facial disparity, but as technology advances these methods become obsolete. In this study, we propose a new method for deepfake detection based on observation of human eye blink patterns. Human eye blinking is a natural and involuntary action that is difficult to accurately replicate in deepfake video. In our study, we used the unique characteristics of individual blink patterns, which are influenced by many factors such as genetics, muscle tone and unconscious reflexes. We use computer vision and machine learning techniques to extract and identify these patterns from video clips. Our preliminary tests show good results in detecting deepfakes with high accuracy. We are focused on continuing to support the fight against the spread of fraud by focusing on a part of human behaviour that is difficult to replicate. This approach has the potential to improve existing tools for in-depth discovery and increase the overall security and reliability of multimedia content in the digital age. This research opens new avenues for the development of more robust, reliable and flexible deep recognition technologies. This represents a significant step forward in the ongoing fight against malicious misuse of electronic devices.

Survey On “Deepvision’s Human Eye Blink Pattern Analysis for Deepfake Detection”

Deepfake technology has rapidly evolved, enabling the creation of highly convincing synthetic media, including images, videos, and audio recordings. These maliciously manipulated digital artifacts can have severe consequences for privacy, security, and trust in digital content. Therefore, the development of effective deepfake detection methods is of paramount importance. This paper proposes a novel approach for deepfake detection based on the analysis of human eye blinking patterns. The human eye blink is a unique and subtle behavioral trait that is challenging to replicate accurately in deepfake videos. We leverage this inherent biometric feature to identify anomalies in video content and distinguish between genuine and synthetic videos. Key Words: Eye Blink to Speech, Machine Learning.

LASense: Pushing the Limits of Fine-grained Activity Sensing Using Acoustic Signals.

Acoustic signals have been widely adopted in sensing fine-grained human activities, including respiration monitoring, finger tracking, eye blink detection, etc. One major challenge for acoustic sensing is the extremely limited sensing range, which becomes even more severe when sensing fine-grained activities. Different from the prior efforts that adopt multiple microphones and/or advanced deep learning techniques for long sensing range, we propose a system called LASense, which can significantly increase the sensing range for fine-grained human activities using a single pair of speaker and microphone. To achieve this, LASense introduces a virtual transceiver idea that purely leverages delicate signal processing techniques in software. To demonstrate the effectiveness of LASense, we apply the proposed approach to three fine-grained human activities, i.e., respiration, finger tapping and eye blink. For respiration monitoring, we significantly increase the sensing range from the state-of-the-art 2 m to 6 m. For finer-grained finger tapping and eye blink detection, we increase the state-of-the-art sensing range by 150% and 80%, respectively.

Multimodal Human Eye Blink Recognition Using Z-score Based Thresholding and Weighted Features

Multimodal Human Eye Blink Recognition Using Z-score Based Thresholding and Weighted Features

Multimodal human eye blink recognition method using feature level fusion for exigency detection

In this paper, a precise multimodal eye blink recognition method using feature level fusion (MmERMFLF) is proposed. A new feature: eye-eyebrow facet ratio (EEBFR) (formed by fusing eye facet ratio (EFR: ratio of diagonal length and width of eye) and eyebrow to nose facet ratio (EBNFR: distance between eyebrow landmarks and nose landmark)) for approximating the eye state is computed. Initially, an improved intellectual framework (Sagacious Information Recuperation Technique) that senses the emergency state using information retrieved from eye blinks, pulse rate as well as behavioral patterns(emotions) exhibited by an individual is presented. Further a novel multimodal method (MmERMFLF) for detection and counting of eye blinks is implemented. For training, one state-of-the-art database—ZJU is used. To additionally improve the performance, feature-level fusion schemes [simple concatenate and fusion codes (gaborization)] are enforced and equated. Receiver operating characteristics, error rate, sensitivity, specificity, and precision are used to demonstrate the performance of the proposed method qualitatively and quantitatively. Accuracy with proposed MmERMFLF is increased to 99.02% (using EEBGFR method with bagged ensemble classifier) in comparison to unimodal eye blink recognition system (97.60%). 99.80% genuine blinks are classified by MmERMFLF (when gaborization fusion is used) using simple tree classifier.

Polarity- and Intensity-Independent Modulation of Timing During Delay Eyeblink Conditioning Using Cerebellar Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation.

Delay eyeblink conditioning (dEBC) is widely used to assess cerebellar-dependent associative motor learning, including precise timing processes. Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), noninvasive brain stimulation used to indirectly excite and inhibit select brain regions, may be a promising tool for understanding how functional integrity of the cerebellum influences dEBC behavior. The aim of this study was to assess whether tDCS-induced inhibition (cathodal) and excitation (anodal) of the cerebellum differentially impact timing of dEBC. A standard 10-block dEBC paradigm was administered to 102 healthy participants. Participants were randomized to stimulation conditions in a double-blind, between-subjects sham-controlled design. Participants received 20-min active (anodal or cathodal) stimulation at 1.5mA (n = 20 anodal, n = 22 cathodal) or 2mA (n = 19 anodal, n = 21 cathodal) or sham stimulation (n = 20) concurrently with dEBC training. Stimulation intensity and polarity effects on percent conditioned responses (CRs) and CR peak and onset latency were examined using repeated-measures analyses of variance. Acquisition of CRs increased over time at a similar rate across sham and all active stimulation groups. CR peak and onset latencies were later, i.e., closer to air puff onset, in all active stimulation groups compared to the sham group. Thus,tDCS facilitated cerebellar-dependent timing of dEBC, irrespective of stimulation intensity and polarity. These findings highlight the feasibility of using tDCS to modify cerebellar-dependent functions and provide further support for cerebellar contributions to human eyeblink conditioning and for exploring therapeutic tDCS interventions for cerebellar dysfunction.

Design and Implementation of Artificial Human Hand Model Based on Eye Blink Detection

This paper proposes two paradigms for controlling a robotic arm by integrating eye blink and IOT based techniques. The purpose of our study is to develop a feasible paradigm for helping disabled persons with their every-day needs.“Artificial Human Hand Model (AHHM)” which can precisely follow the real movements of human hand by means of real human eye blinks and IOT based methods. Simple algorithms were implemented for detecting electrophysiological signals like eye saccades, blinking and eye closure events. Interactive resources to integrate myRIO into our project increases efficiency of this concept.

Technological Insurance for Happy and Safe Journey

In the past, present and future, human life is more important than anything else in the society. The main aim of this paper is to add a technological feather to the human life, by ensuring safety to the human life, when a person is driving the vehicle. To enhance the safety system in transportation, here we designed a system to detect human’s drowsiness. By calculating human heart beat rate and eye blink rate which decides the person’s drowsiness condition. In this paper we designed smart spectacle by using TCRT 5000 IR sensor and heartbeat sensor which detects heart beat rate of the driver. By using these two, vehicle automatically detects the drowsiness of the driver and direct the concerned to alert, so that life will be saved from the accident.

Blinking Extraction in Eye gaze System for Stereoscopy Movies

Abstract The aim of this paper is to present methods for human eye blink recognition. The main function of blinking is to spread tears across the eye and remove irratants from the surface of the cornea and conjuctiva. Blinking can be associated with internal memory processing, fatigue or activation in central nervous system. There are currently many methods for automatic blink detection. The most reliable methods include EOG or EEG signals. These methods, however, are associated with a decrease in the comfort of the examined person. This paper presents a method to detect blinks with the eye-tracker device. There are currently many blink detection methods for this devices. Two popular eye-trackers were tested in this paper. In addition a method for improving detection efficiency was proposed.

Erratum to: "Functional MRI of Human Eyeblink Classical Conditioning in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders".

Erratum to: "Functional MRI of Human Eyeblink Classical Conditioning in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders".

Functional MRI of Human Eyeblink Classical Conditioning in Children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders.

Prenatal alcohol exposure has been linked to a broad range of developmental deficits, with eyeblink classical conditioning (EBC) among the most sensitive endpoints. This fMRI study compared EBC-related brain activity in 47 children with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), partial FAS (PFAS), heavily exposed (HE) non-syndromal children, and healthy controls. All of the children had previously participated in two EBC studies conducted as part of our longitudinal study of fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Although learning-related behavioral differences were seen in all groups during the scans, controls showed more conditioned responses (CR) than the alcohol-exposed groups. Despite lower conditioning levels relative to controls, the exposed groups exhibited extensive cerebellar activations. Specifically, children with FAS/PFAS showed increased activation of cerebellar lobule VI in session 2, while HE children showed increased activation in session 1. Continuous measures of prenatal alcohol use correlated with learning-related activations in cerebellum and frontal cortices. Only controls showed significant cerebellar activation-CR correlations in the deep nuclei and lateral lobule VI, suggesting that these key regions supporting EBC may be functionally disorganized in alcohol-exposed children. These findings are the first to characterize abnormalities in brain function associated with the behavioral conditioning deficits seen in children with prenatal alcohol exposure.

Evidence for multiple processes contributing to the Perruchet effect: Response priming and associative learning.

The Perruchet effect constitutes a robust demonstration that it is possible to dissociate conditioned responding and expectancy in a random partial reinforcement design across a variety of human associative learning paradigms. This dissociation has been interpreted as providing evidence for multiple processes supporting learning, with expectancy driven by cognitive processes that lead to a Gambler's fallacy, and the pattern of conditioned responding (CRs) the result of an associative learning process. An alternative explanation is that the pattern of CRs is the result of exposure to the unconditioned stimulus (US). In 3 human eyeblink conditioning experiments we examined these competing explanations of the Perruchet effect by employing a differential conditioning design and varying the degree to which the 2 conditioned stimuli (CS) were discriminable. Across all of these experiments there was evidence for a component of the CRs being strongly influenced by recent reinforcement, in a way that was not demonstrably influenced by manipulations of CS discriminability, which suggests a response priming mechanism contributes to the Perruchet effect. However, the complete pattern of results and an analysis of the results from previously published studies are also consistent with there being an associative contribution to the effect. (PsycINFO Database Record

영화클립을 이용한 눈깜빡임과 시각적 주의력과의 상관성 연구

Abstract: Generally, human eye blinks are closely associated with the cognitive state or visual attention such asattentional requirements on visual stimuli. These previous studies have reported that eye blinks are related to explicitvisual attention using blink rate, pattern and blink timing across subjects. However, these results have been obtainedin a well-controlled experimental settings. So, it would prove difficult to investigate human’s natural response in acontinuous and realistic situation. In our study, we measured the eye blink intervals while participants viewed a movieclip. And we analyzed the blink interval data for relationship between visual attention and eye blink intervals. 24 par-ticipants took part in two experimental sessions, first session to measure the IEBI while viewing the movie clip andsecond session to conduct a memory performance test using a self-questionnaire, which were spaced 3 weeks apart.The results indicate significantly higher memory performance at long IEBI period than short IEBI period whilewatching a movie clip(t = 3.257, df = 17, p < 0.005, 2-tailed). In addition, memory performance score significantlycorrelated with the IEBI value(spearman’s rho = 0.40, N = 36, p < 0.01, 2-tailed). Our results suggest that IEBI isused to measure or assess visual attention while wiewing the movie that it is capable of simulating aspects of real-life experiences by visual attention. Thus, we expect IEBI to be used to measure or assess our visual attention, cog-nition, further emotion about not only movies, advertisements and other cultural contents but also cognitive science.Key words: eye blink, Inter eye blink interval, visual attention, movie clip, memory capacity, culture content

The role of contingency awareness in single-cue human eyeblink conditioning

Single-cue delay eyeblink conditioning is presented as a prototypical example of automatic, nonsymbolic learning that is carried out by subcortical circuits. However, it has been difficult to assess the role of cognition in single-cue conditioning because participants become aware of the simple stimulus contingency so quickly. In this experiment (n = 166), we masked the contingency to reduce awareness. We observed a strong relationship between contingency awareness and conditioned responding, with both trace and delay procedures. This finding suggests that explicit associative knowledge and anticipatory behavior are regulated by a coordinated system rather than by functionally and neurally distinct systems.

A magnetic resonance imaging-safe method for the study of human eyeblink conditioning

Eyeblink conditioning (EBC) is a widely used translational probe of cerebellar function in both humans and non-human animals. Decades of animal research have identified the cerebellum as critical for EBC. While there is evidence for the involvement of the cerebellum in human EBC, the neural circuitry of EBC in healthy humans has yet to be fully elucidated. The purpose of this study was to design and validate a highly customisable system for EBC stimulus presentation and response recording using infrared (IR) reflectance suitable for use in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) environments; in this way, the neural activity of EBC could be investigated using fMRI in humans. Four participants underwent delay EBC and simultaneous fMRI. The results indicate (1) a high signal-to-noise ratio in the IR reflectance data that effectively quantifies the eyeblink morphology and timing and (2) evidence of conditioning in the fMRI environment. The quality of the data, the feasibility of conducting EBC experiments in the fMRI environment, and the customisability of the current system to fit a variety of EBC experimental design parameters are discussed.

Affective Modulation of the Startle Reflex Is an Ineffective Methodology to Examine Depression-Linked Interpretative Biases

Cognitive theory predicts that depression is associated with a bias to interpret ambiguous information in a mood-congruent fashion. This negative interpretative bias may serve as a maintenance factor for the continuation of a depressed mood state. The majority of studies investigating such interpretative biases suffer from a variety of methodological problems. This research has utilized an objective physiological measure involving the affective modulation of the human eye blink reflex in 25 depressed and 25 control subjects by depressive, depressive-ambiguous, and distorted stimuli. Almost half of the depressed subjects suffered from a comorbid anxiety disorder. In contrast to previous research utilizing the same methodology, depressed participants did not react differently to non-depressed participants in terms of their blink reflex response to the various stimuli types. This outcome is ascribed to the exclusion of anxiety-related stimuli in the current study. Depression-related stimuli failed to augment blink amplitudes in both subject groups. Therefore, affective modulation of the startle reflex is an ineffective methodology for the detection of depression-linked interpretative biases, as there is no difference to how individuals react to depressive and neutral stimuli. In this study, patients diagnosed with social anxiety disorder reacted to difficult-to-identify stimuli with augmented blink amplitudes, interpreted as an anxiety response.

The effects of aging in delay and trace human eyeblink conditioning.

Normal aging has been shown to impact performance during human eyeblink classical conditioning, with older adults showing lower conditioning levels than younger adults. Previous findings showed younger adults can acquire both delay and trace conditioning concurrently, but it is not known whether older adults can learn under the same conditions. Present results indicated older adults did not produce a significantly greater number of conditioned responses during acquisition, but their ability to time eyeblink responses prior to the unconditioned stimulus was preserved. The decline in eyeblink conditioning that typically accompanies aging has been extended to concurrent presentations of delay and trace conditioning trials.

Is Perruchet’s dissociation between eyeblink conditioned responding and outcome expectancy evidence for two learning systems?

P. Perruchet (1985b) showed a double dissociation of conditioned responses (CRs) and expectancy for an airpuff unconditioned stimulus (US) in a 50% partial reinforcement schedule in human eyeblink conditioning. In the Perruchet effect, participants show an increase in CRs and a concurrent decrease in expectancy for the airpuff across runs of reinforced trials; conversely, participants show a decrease in CRs and a concurrent increase in expectancy for the airpuff across runs of nonreinforced trials. Three eyeblink conditioning experiments investigated whether the linear trend in eyeblink CRs in the Perruchet effect is a result of changes in associative strength of the conditioned stimulus (CS), US sensitization, or learning the precise timing of the US. Experiments 1 and 2 demonstrated that the linear trend in eyeblink CRs is not the result of US sensitization. Experiment 3 showed that the linear trend in eyeblink CRs is present with both a fixed and a variable CS-US interval and so is not the result of learning the precise timing of the US. The results are difficult to reconcile with a single learning process model of associative learning in which expectancy mediates CRs.

Ocular surface area and human eye blink frequency during VDU work: the effect of monitor position and task

The purpose of this study was to investigate how the ocular surface area (OSA) and the eye blink frequency (BF) are affected by a high versus a low-monitor position during visual display unit (VDU) work with varying cognitive demands. In a balanced randomized (2 x 2) design ten healthy subjects (five males, five females) completed two different tasks on the VDU in a simulated office environment (23 degrees C and 30-35% relative humidity); an active task with demands on vision and hand-eye coordination, and a passive task. Two monitor positions were used: high (the monitors' upper edge at the same height as the subjects' eyes) and low (lowered by 25 degrees and perpendicular to gaze angle). Each task lasted 10 min. An OSA-proxy was measured from video recordings, and BF was sampled by electrooculography. The effect of lowering the gaze angle by 25 degrees decreased the OSA-proxy significantly (P < 0.01) during the active task, indicating that a low position of the monitor may be preferable even though the BF also decreased. Overall, the OSA-proxy was 6% higher during the active task compared to the passive while BF during the active task was 69% lower than during the passive task. The low BF during the active task was succeded by a burst with high BF after cessation of the active task, indicating a compensatory blinking process. This stresses that interchange of work tasks with different cognitive load is as important as the monitor position in the prevention of visual and musculoskeletal disorders.

Further Analysis of the Human Spontaneous Eye Blink Rate by a Cluster Analysis-Based Approach to Categorize Individuals With ‘Normal’ Versus ‘Frequent’ Eye Blink Activity

To further analyze the possible causes of variability in spontaneous eye blink activity in apparently healthy humans. One hundred men, aged between 23 and 57 years and with no significant eye disease, were questioned on the number of ocular symptoms they experienced (one, two, three, and so forth). Five-minute video recordings were made of the eyes in primary gaze and in silence between 11:00 and 17:00 hours. The spontaneous eye blink rate (SEBR) and palpebral aperture features were assessed from the video recordings. The central corneal threshold touch sensitivity was then assessed with a Cochet-Bonnet aesthesiometer. The average SEBR was 13.8 +/- 9.7 blinks per minute (range, 2.8-48 blinks per minute), but the distribution was heterogeneous and skewed to higher values. The SEBR was not obviously dependent on the time of day that the recordings were made, on the number of mild symptoms that the subjects reported, or on the central corneal sensitivity (P> or =0.6). Analysis of SEBR in relation to age showed a possible weak association (P=0.082, r = 0.175), but SEBR showed absolutely no correlation with palpebral aperture height (P=0.546). A hierarchic cluster analysis clearly resolved the distribution of SEBR values into two distinct groups (P<0.001, F ratio = 222). Spontaneous eye blink activity can be rather different between healthy individuals, even under a single experimental condition. These differences do not appear to be caused by the time of day, mild symptoms, corneal sensitivity, age, or palpebral aperture features. In line with previous metaanalyses, it is therefore proposed that individuals could be grouped as to whether they have "normal" eye blink activity or be classified as having "frequent" eye blink activity. The latter group would include those who had an SEBR greater than 20 blinks per minute when assessed in primary eye gaze and in silence.