Human-dog Interactions Research Articles

Category-dependent contribution of dog facial and bodily cues in human perception of dog emotions

The increasing popularity of human-dog interaction in our society calls for fuller understanding of humans’ ability to appraise dogs’ affective states, yet most research only focuses on recognizing dog facial expressions of primary/basic emotions. While the face is the dominant human emotional expression channel, bodily cues are also informative indicators of dog emotional states. In this online study, with dynamic and naturalistic videos depicting a common range of dog primary (anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, surprise) and secondary emotions (appeasement, frustration, pain, positive anticipation, separation-distress), we compared human performance from 447 participants in categorizing dog facial expressions (with a visible dog face only) and bodily expressions (with a visible dog face and body). The analysis revealed when averaging across all tested emotions, bodily expression tended to attract higher categorization accuracy than facial expression. However, the two expression channels demonstrated category-dependent modification of dog emotion categorization accuracy (e.g., higher accuracy in recognizing facial expressions of anger and surprise, but bodily expressions of happiness and fear) and bias (e.g., mistaking fear facial expression as happiness, but fear bodily expression as sadness). Furthermore, the impact of owner experience on recognizing dog emotions was also modulated by the expression channel and emotion category (e.g., prolonged experience with dogs tended to improve performance in recognizing the fear facial expression, and the appeasement bodily expression). Taken together, these results suggest that different channels of emotional expression by dogs may transmit category-specific diagnostic emotional cues, which aid human appraisal of their affective states.

Disrupted Human-Dog Interbrain Neural Coupling in Autism-Associated Shank3 Mutant Dogs.

Dogs interact with humans effectively and intimately. However, the neural underpinnings for such interspecies social communication are not understood. It is known that interbrain activity coupling, i.e., the synchronization of neural activity between individuals, represents the neural basis of social interactions. Here, previously unknown cross-species interbrain activity coupling in interacting human-dog dyads is reported. By analyzing electroencephalography signals from both dogs and humans, it is found that mutual gaze and petting induce interbrain synchronization in the frontal and parietal regions of the human-dog dyads, respectively. The strength of the synchronization increases with growing familiarity of the human-dog dyad over five days, and the information flow analysis suggests that the human is the leader while the dog is the follower during human-dog interactions. Furthermore, dogs with Shank3 mutations, which represent a promising complementary animal model of autism spectrum disorders (ASD), show a loss of interbrain coupling and reduced attention during human-dog interactions. Such abnormalities are rescued by the psychedelic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). The results reveal previously unknown interbrain synchronizations within an interacting human-dog dyad which may underlie the interspecies communication, and suggest a potential of LSD for the amelioration of social impairment in patients with ASD.

Human physiological responses to different types of human-dog interactions: A randomised crossover study

Previous studies of human-dog interventions vary in terms of type of interaction, which is rarely quantified, leading to contradictory findings and limited comparability. To uncover the influence of different types of interactions, the present study investigated if it was possible to detect differences in immediate physiological measurements of healthy humans during different standardised types of interaction with a dog. Thirty-three healthy participants (women = 25, men = 8, >18 years) were exposed to four different test situations with standardised types of interaction intensity with a dog in random order: no dog present (CONTROL), looking at a dog (VISUAL), petting a dog (TACTILE) or performing tricks with a dog (ACTIVE). Each test situation lasted 10 min with a 30-min break between each. Heart rate (HR), heart rate variability (HRV) and skin conductance (tonic level (SCL) and peak counts (SCR)) were continuously recorded. Blood pressure (BP) and salivary cortisol (s-cortisol) were measured before and after each test situation. Linear Mixed Models were applied. HR, HRV, BP, SCL and SCR increased with increased interaction with the dog (for all: p < 0.001). HRV increased with decreased HR (p = 0.002), increased SCL (p = 0.027), and SCR (p < 0.001) depending on the type of interaction. Generally, s-cortisol increased with increased HR (p = 0.042), SCL increased with increased SCR (p < 0.001), and SCR increased with increased HRV (p = 0.013), depending on type of interaction. The physiological measurements HR, HRV, BP, SCL and SCR are influenced by different types of dog interaction, and thus it is important to quantify and report the type of interaction in human-dog interaction studies. (ClinicalTrials.gov ID:NCT04696419).

Dog bites are increasing in frequency and severity – a sustained effect following the COVID-19 pandemic

The COVID-19 pandemic and subsequent lockdown measures have changed various aspects of society, including patterns of human-animal interactions. This audit investigates the incidence and severity of dog bites admitted under the plastic surgery department at a major trauma centre before and after COVID-19 lockdowns. We assessed trends in dog bite cases over the course of one year (2018) prior to the COVID-19 lockdown and one year after (2022). A time period during COVID-19 lockdown itself was not included to avoid confounding factors due to changes in healthcare provision during the pandemic. Our analysis reveals a 47 % increase in dog bites after lockdowns ended compared to before. We also demonstrate statistically significant increases in the need for operative management (90 % of patients compared to 78 %) and length of inpatient hospital stay (average 63 h compared to 51). Moreover we show that dog bites have increased in severity, with a clear increase in patients presenting with deeper tissue injuries, tissue loss and muscle, nerve, vascular or bone involvement. This represents a significant functional, cosmetic and psychological impact for patients as well as financial impact on the NHS and increased workload for plastic surgery departments. This is the first paper to examine the severity of dog bite injuries and to demonstrate a sustained effect even after the easing of lockdown measures. Our findings shed light on the potential impact of lockdown measures on human-dog interactions and highlight the importance of public awareness and prevention strategies in mitigating dog bites. Lay summaryOur study demonstrates that dog bite injuries increased in frequency by 47 % following COVID-19 lockdowns. Patients with dog bites are also being admitted for longer than before, requiring more operations and have more severe injuries, with some requiring skin grafting, nerve repair or more complex plastic surgery reconstruction.

Domestication constrains the ability of dogs to convey emotions via facial expressions in comparison to their wolf ancestors

Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are the domestically bred descendant of wolves (Canis lupus). However, selective breeding has profoundly altered facial morphologies of dogs compared to their wolf ancestors. We demonstrate that these morphological differences limit the abilities of dogs to successfully produce the same affective facial expressions as wolves. We decoded facial movements of captive wolves during social interactions involving nine separate affective states. We used linear discriminant analyses to predict affective states based on combinations of facial movements. The resulting confusion matrix demonstrates that specific combinations of facial movements predict nine distinct affective states in wolves; the first assessment of this many affective facial expressions in wolves. However, comparative analyses with kennelled rescue dogs revealed reduced ability to predict affective states. Critically, there was a very low predictive power for specific affective states, with confusion occurring between negative and positive states, such as Friendly and Fear. We show that the varying facial morphologies of dogs (specifically non-wolf-like morphologies) limit their ability to produce the same range of affective facial expressions as wolves. Confusion among positive and negative states could be detrimental to human–dog interactions, although our analyses also suggest dogs likely use vocalisations to compensate for limitations in facial communication.

Psychophysiological and emotional effects of human-Dog interactions by activity type: An electroencephalogram study.

Animal-assisted interventions are being increasingly used in studies that support various health effects. This study compared the psychophysiological and emotional responses during diverse activities with a dog to understand the impact of activity type. This study included 30 healthy adults (average age: 27.9 ± 8.4 years). Participants performed eight different activities with a dog for 3 minutes each. These activities included meeting, playing, feeding, massaging, grooming, photographing, hugging, and walking. Brain waves in the prefrontal, frontal, parietal, and occipital lobes were measured during the activities. Subjective evaluation of their emotions was recorded after each activity via the Profile of Mood States, Semantic Differential Method, and Stress Numeric Rating Scale. The alpha (relative, relative slow, relative fast) power spectra indicated that the brain's relaxation and resting state significantly increased when playing with and walking a dog. The beta (relative, relative low, and relative mid) power spectra significantly increased during dog massage, grooming, and playing activities, indicating improved concentration without stress. Notably, playing with a dog positively affected both relaxation and concentration. The Profile of Mood States outcome showed that activities such as feeding, massaging, and hugging the dog decreased the total mood disorder score, which indicated a positive effect on participants' moods. The Semantic Differential Method revealed that participants felt comfortable and natural while walking with a dog and relaxed when massaging it. Participants showed significantly lower stress moods in all the activities. This study demonstrated that specific dog activities could activate stronger relaxation, emotional stability, attention, concentration, and creativity by facilitating increased brain activity. In addition, interactions with dogs could decrease stress and induce positive emotional responses. These results provide data that forms the basis for the composition of the AAI program and may be applicable as a reference to determine the most effective activities for specific applications.

Making or breaking the case for a plain face – Is human perception of canine facial expressivity influenced by physical appearance?

Abstract Facial communication is important in both human-human interactions and human-dog interactions. Individual factors, such as experience, relationship history, and mood, to name a few, influence the reception of facial signals/expressions. But superficial facial features are also significant in human communication, and likely impact communication between dogs and humans. For example, humans are better at evaluating the frequency and intensity of facial expressions in dogs that have plainer faces, if the dog is familiar to them, which could be related to a preference for non-complexity (human faces are generally much less physically diverse than dog faces). This study explored the effect of the physical complexity of dog and human faces on the perceived expressiveness of neutral-faced, unknown individuals of both species. Results indicate that when looking at static images of unknown dogs and humans, facial complexity has minimal impact on how expressive people perceive them to be. However, dogs are consistently ranked as more expressive than humans, and people who live with dogs tend to rank neutral-face dogs of all facial complexity levels as more expressive compared to the rankings of humans who do not live with dogs – which we hypothesize may be the result of a desire/tendency of dog owners to “read meaning” into dog faces.

How to Measure Human-Dog Interaction in Dog Assisted Interventions? A Scoping Review

Human-dog interaction is the working tool through which the therapeutic, educational and recreational goals of dog-assisted interventions (DAIs) are achieved. A better understanding of the characteristics of this interaction could improve the effectiveness of DAIs. This scoping review addresses the question: how has the human-dog connection been measured in the context of DAIs? After searching the Web of Science and Scopus platforms, only peer-reviewed, primary research studies reporting measures of therapy dog-human interaction, relationship and bond were included. A total of 70 included articles provided information on what was measured (interaction, relationship or bond) and how, as well as the general context (DAIs or experimental situations with therapy dogs). While the majority of the articles identified use behavioural analysis methods to analyse the interaction between the participant/recipient and the therapy dog during DAIs, it was possible to identify some more structured tools that assess the participant/recipient’s interaction, relationship or bond with the therapy dog, as well as tools that consider the animal’s perspective or focus on the dog-handler dyad, indicating growing areas of research. The tools and methods identified can be used by both practitioners and researchers to further explore aspects of human-dog interaction in the field of DAIs.

When Dogs Talk: Technologically Mediated Human-Dog Interactions as Semiotic Assemblages

When Dogs Talk: Technologically Mediated Human-Dog Interactions as Semiotic Assemblages

Evidence-based legislation, strong institutions and consensus needed to mitigate the negative impacts of free-ranging dogs.

Dogs bring many benefits to our society but, if not properly managed, they can be detrimental for humans, livestock and wildlife. We highlight the increasing problems associated with free-ranging dogs using examples from two regions of the world where this issue is pervasive, India and South America. In these regions, free-ranging dogs spread diseases, injure people, harm biodiversity, and negatively impact human livelihoods. We discuss why mitigating these deleterious effects can be extremely complicated because there are diverse challenges such as: (a) a lack of or inappropriate legislations concerning free-ranging dog management and human-dog interactions, (b) unregulated intentional and unintentional feeding of free-ranging dogs, (c) limitations of animal shelters, (d) non-responsible ownership, and (e) uncontrolled dog populations. As the management of animal species is usually shaped by differing interests, existing policies and regulations, views and social influence of stakeholders, power asymmetries between interested parties is yet another challenge in this regard. We need evidence-based legislations and strong institutions (e.g., public health and conservation institutions) that are capable of implementing governance principles and managing the complexities of this socio-ecological system by taking science-based decisions, and balancing power asymmetries to promote consensus.

Repurposing a Peer-Reviewed Publication to Engage Students in Statistics: An Illustration of Study Design, Data Collection, and Analysis

Engaging and motivating students in undergraduate statistics courses can be enhanced by using topical peer-reviewed publications for analyses as part of course assignments. Given the popularity of on-campus therapy dog stress-reduction programs, this topic fosters buy-in from students whilst providing information regarding the importance of mental health and well-being as it impacts learning. This article describes how instructors can use a study on the benefits of human–dog interactions to teach students about study design, data collection and ethics, and hypothesis testing. The data and research questions are accessible to students without requiring detailed subject-area knowledge. Students can think carefully about how to collect and analyze data from a randomized controlled trial with two-sample hypothesis tests. Instructors can use these data for short in-class examples or longer assignments and assessments, and throughout this article, we suggest activities and discussion questions. Supplementary materials for this article are available online.

‘Pawing’ uncertainty! how dogs attenuate the impact of daily hassles at work on uncertainty

PurposeThis study relied on the integrative model of uncertainty tolerance to delineate an argument proposing that daily hassles trigger uncertainty, and this influences adaptive performance. Furthermore, relying on the “furr-recovery method” –where interactions with dogs allow dog owners to recover from negative situations or job demands - this study tested whether having a dog would moderate the relationship between daily hassles and uncertainty.MethodologyTo test this proposed model, daily data during ten working days was gathered with a sample of white-collar workers who were teleworking (N = 233 × 10 = 2,330).FindingsMultilevel results showed that daily hassles influenced adaptive performance via perceived uncertainty. However, the relationship between daily hassles and uncertainty was conditional on the ownership of a dog, in such a way that the relationship became weaker for those who had dogs. That is, those who did not have dogs had increased levels of uncertainty after daily hassles when compared to those who had dogs.Practical implicationsManagers may consider the adoption of pet-friendly work practices (for instance, telework – working from home allow employees to work nearby and interact with their dogs during worktime) as dogs appear to have a beneficial effect to help employees effectively cope with daily hassles and reduce their uncertain reactions.OriginalityThis study advances knowledge regarding the pawing-effect (the reduced uncertainty to daily hassles on dog owners) on employees’ uncertainty to daily hassles and opens new venues for research regarding their role in work-related outcomes. Further, future research could examine how human-dog interactions or the quality of their relationship may benefit owners and explore the benefits of bringing dogs to work periodically.

What Is Written on a Dog's Face? Evaluating the Impact of Facial Phenotypes on Communication between Humans and Canines.

Facial phenotypes are significant in communication with conspecifics among social primates. Less is understood about the impact of such markers in heterospecific encounters. Through behavioral and physical phenotype analyses of domesticated dogs living in human households, this study aims to evaluate the potential impact of superficial facial markings on dogs' production of human-directed facial expressions. That is, this study explores how facial markings, such as eyebrows, patches, and widow's peaks, are related to expressivity toward humans. We used the Dog Facial Action Coding System (DogFACS) as an objective measure of expressivity, and we developed an original schematic for a standardized coding of facial patterns and coloration on a sample of more than 100 male and female dogs (N = 103), aged from 6 months to 12 years, representing eight breed groups. The present study found a statistically significant, though weak, correlation between expression rate and facial complexity, with dogs with plainer faces tending to be more expressive (r = -0.326, p ≤ 0.001). Interestingly, for adult dogs, human companions characterized dogs' rates of facial expressivity with more accuracy for dogs with plainer faces. Especially relevant to interspecies communication and cooperation, within-subject analyses revealed that dogs' muscle movements were distributed more evenly across their facial regions in a highly social test condition compared to conditions in which they received ambiguous cues from their owners. On the whole, this study provides an original evaluation of how facial features may impact communication in human-dog interactions.

Visual Processing of the Faces of Humans and Dogs by Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder: An Eye-Tracking Study

ABSTRACT Recent studies indicate a positive correlation between canine-assisted interventions and social and communicative abilities in people with autism. These benefits could be due to more efficient processing of socially informative areas when dog faces are processed. Using an eye tracker, this study aimed to assess the visual processing of faces in 13 children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and 13 neurotypical (NT) children when gazing at the faces of humans and of dogs. We divided the faces into two categories. First, individual faces of adult humans, children, and dogs were used in a free-viewing paradigm, where the area of interest was the eyes. We recorded the total time spent gazing at the eyes (dwell time), latency to the first look, and continuous gaze time. Second, pairs of faces were presented at the same time in a pair paradigm, and preferences in terms of face position (left/right) and type (dog/human), and the number of transitions between faces, were measured. When presented with pairs of faces, ASD children gazed for longer at the dog’s face, regardless of its position, and showed a higher number of shifts between pictures when the face of a dog was present. However, the NT group did not discriminate between the two faces. The results for individual faces showed significant differences in how ASD children look at the eyes of faces rather than differences in the total duration of the gaze; they are faster in terms of their first gaze and exhibit a longer average fixation time when gazing at the eyes of dogs compared with those of humans. Both human and dog faces were processed atypically in children with ASD, who seemed to engage with dogs more rapidly and for extended periods. This suggests possible socio-communicative benefits of human–dog interactions for people with autism, from a visual processing point of view.

Digital Technology Supporting the Remote Human-Dog Interaction: Scoping Review.

For thousands of years, dogs have coexisted with humans and have been adopted as companion pets and working animals. The communication between humans and dogs has improved their coexistence and socialization; however, due to the nature of their activities, dogs and humans occasionally lose face-to-face contact. The purpose of this scoping review is to examine five essential aspects of current technology designed to support intentional communication between humans and dogs in scenarios where there is no face-to-face contact: (1) the technologies used, (2) the activity supported, (3) the interaction modality, (4) the evaluation procedures, and the results obtained, and (5) the main limitations. In addition, this article explores future directions for research and practice. The PRISMA-ScR (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews) guidelines were followed when conducting the review. Scopus (Elsevier), Springer-Link, IEEE Xplorer, ACM Digital Library, and Science Direct were used as data sources to retrieve information from January 2010 to March 2022. The titles and abstracts were individually reviewed by the authors (L.R.-V., I.E.E.-C., and H.P.-E.), and the full articles were then examined before a final inclusion determination. 15 (3%) out of the 571 records that were obtained met the requirements for inclusion. The most used technologies for dogs are: (1) 71% of technologies focused on generating messages are wearable devices equipped with sensors (bite, tug, or gesture), (2) 60% of technologies focused on receiving messages are wearable devices equipped with vibrotactile actuators, and (3) 100% of technologies focused on bidirectional communication are videochats. 67% of the works are oriented to support search and assistance tasks. 80% of the works developed technology for one-way communication. 53% of the technologies have a haptic dog interaction modality, that is, there is an object that the dog must wear or manipulate in a certain way. All of the reported evaluations were pilot studies with positive feasibility results. Remote human-dog interaction technology holds significant promise and potential; however, more research is required to assess their usability and efficacy and to incorporate new technological developments.

Six facial prosodic expressions caregivers similarly display to infants and dogs

Parents tend to use a specific communication style, including specific facial expressions, when speaking to their preverbal infants which has important implications for children’s healthy development. In the present study, we investigated these facial prosodic features of caregivers with a novel method that compares infant-, dog- and adult-directed communication. We identified three novel facial displays in addition to the already described three facial expressions (i.e. the ‘prosodic faces’) that mothers and fathers are typically displaying when interacting with their 1–18 month-old infants and family dogs, but not when interacting with another adult. The so-called Special Happy expression proved to be the most frequent face type during infant- and dog-directed communication which always includes a Duchenne marker to convey an honest and intense happy emotion of the speaker. These results suggest that the ‘prosodic faces’ play an important role in both adult-infant and human–dog interactions and fulfil specific functions: to call and maintain the partner’s attention, to foster emotionally positive interactions, and to strengthen social bonds. Our study highlights the relevance of future comparative studies on facial prosody and its potential contribution to healthy emotional and cognitive development of infants.

Owned dog population size and ownership patterns in Costa Rica.

Dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) are one of the most common pets around the world but ownership patterns and human-dog interactions have been changing, particularly in developing nations. We conducted household surveys in Costa Rica to characterize dog ownership, the owned dog population, where dogs were confined at night and in the morning, and behaviors regarding selected dog care issues. We also compared these results to similar questionnaires used in Costa Rica over the past 20 years. We found 76% of households in Costa Rica owned at least one dog and on average there were about 1.4 dogs owned per household. These dog ownership rates are higher than previous estimates. The probability of owning a dog was highest on farms and lowest in single family dwellings without a yard, higher among respondents that owned their homes and decreasing with increasing human population density The total number of owned dogs in Costa Rica was estimated to be 2,222,032 (95% confidence intervals: 1,981,497-2,503,751). The sterilization rate for homed dogs in 2020 was approximately 62% (females: 67%, males: 61%) which is higher than the 18% of owned dogs that were sterilized in a 2003 survey. Overall, only 1.2% (95% CI: 0.3-2.5%) of owned dogs slept on the street with a slightly higher proportion on the street at 8 am. The number of owned dogs roaming the streets at night nation-wide was estimated to be 27,208 (95% CI: 7,557-56,619) compared to 43,142 (95% CI: 20,118-73,618) on the street at 8 am. The number of unowned free-roaming dogs in Costa Rica has never been estimated but we can generate some idea of the size of the unowned dog population by determining the proportion of free-roaming dogs on the street wearing collars. There was a negative relationship between human population density and owned dogs being on the street meaning fewer dogs roam the streets in highly populated areas compared to less populated areas. Overall, we identify trends against which future progress can be measured and provide information that are critical in designing effective humane dog management programs in Costa Rica in the future.

Autonomic nervous system responses of dogs to human-dog interaction videos

We examined whether dogs show emotional response to social stimuli played on videos. Secondary, we hypothesized that if dogs recognize themselves in videos, they will show a different emotional response to videos of self and other dogs. We compared heart rate variability among four video stimuli: a video of the owner ignoring another dog (OW-A-IGN), a video of a non-owner interacting with another dog (NOW-A-INT), a video of the owner interacting with another dog (OW-A-INT), and a video of the owner interacting with the dog subject (OW-S-INT). The results showed that root mean square of the difference between adjacent R-R Intervals (RMSSD) and standard deviation of the R-R Interval (SDNN) were lower in NOW-A-INT and OW-S-INT than in OW-A-IGN. There was no statistical difference in the responses to OW-S-INT and OW-A-INT, suggesting that dogs did not distinguish themselves and other dogs in videos. On the other hand, the difference in mean R-R Interval between OW-S-INT and OW-A-INT showed positive correlation with the score of attachment or attention-seeking behavior. Therefore, this study does not completely rule out self-recognition in dogs and there remains the possibility that the more attached a dog to its owner, the more distinct the dog's emotional response to the difference between the self-video stimulus and the video stimulus of another dog. Further studies are needed to clarify this possibility.

A pilot study investigating human behaviour towards DAVE (Dog Assisted Virtual Environment) and interpretation of non-reactive and aggressive behaviours during a virtual reality exploration task.

Dog aggression is a public health concern because dog bites often lead to physical and psychological trauma in humans. It is also a welfare concern for dogs. To prevent aggressive behaviours, it is important to understand human behaviour towards dogs and our ability to interpret signs of dog aggression. This poses ethical challenges for humans and dogs. The aim of this study was to introduce, describe and pilot test a virtual reality dog model (DAVE (Dog Assisted Virtual Environment)). The Labrador model has two different modes displaying aggressive and non-reactive non-aggressive behaviours. The aggressive behaviours displayed are based on the current understanding of canine ethology and expert feedback. The objective of the study was to test the recognition of dog behaviour and associated human approach and avoidance behaviour. Sixteen university students were recruited via an online survey to participate in a practical study, and randomly allocated to two experimental conditions, an aggressive followed by a non-reactive virtual reality model (group AN) or vice versa (group NA). Participants were instructed to ‘explore the area’ in each condition, followed by a survey. A Wilcoxon and Mann Whitney U test was used to compare the closest distance to the dog within and between groups respectively. Participants moved overall significantly closer to the non-reactive dog compared to the aggressive dog (p≤0.001; r = 0.8). Descriptions of the aggressive dog given by participants often used motivational or emotional terms. There was little evidence of simulator sickness and presence scores were high indicating sufficient immersion in the virtual environment. Participants appeared to perceive the dog as realistic and behaved and interacted with the dog model in a manner that might be expected during an interaction with a live dog. This study also highlights the promising results for the potential future use of virtual reality in behavioural research (i.e., human-dog interactions), education (i.e. safety around dogs) and psychological treatment (e.g. dog phobia treatment).

Cry wolf: a major misunderstanding about dog behaviour

The notion that dogs are naturally ‘status driven’ and will use aggressive behaviour to gain recognition as ‘top dog’ within the human families they live in is based on outdated research, which has been shown to be significantly flawed. However, the concept has been historically so well-received by society that it continues to drive human—dog interactions that involve using aversive, punishing ways to control pet dog behaviour, with damaging consequences on welfare. Veterinary nurses play an important role in client education, particularly around the alternative approach of reward-based training, however client communications might be jeopardised should they feel neither acknowledged nor connected to the clinic team, and do not believe the veterinary nurse credible. Simply refuting another's long-held belief risks alienating them, as well as them perceiving veterinary professionals to be ‘crying wolf’, presenting oppositional information for their own purpose. Understanding dog behaviour and how human beliefs are formed and strengthened can positively impact welfare, while establishing positive, ongoing client-clinic relationships.