Human Color Research Articles

Alignment of color discrimination in humans and image segmentation networks.

The experiments allowed by current machine learning models imply a revival of the debate on the causes of specific trends of human visual psychophysics. Machine learning facilitates the exploration of the effect of specific visual goals (such as image segmentation) by different neural architectures in different statistical environments in an unprecedented manner. In this way, (1) the principles behind psychophysical facts such as the non-Euclidean nature of human color discrimination and (2) the emergence of human-like behaviour in artificial systems can be explored under a new light. In this work, we show for the first time that the tolerance or invariance of image segmentation networks for natural images under changes of illuminant in the color space (a sort of insensitivity region around the white) is an ellipsoid oriented similarly to a (human) MacAdam ellipse. This striking similarity between an artificial system and human vision motivates a set of experiments checking the relevance of the statistical environment on the emergence of such insensitivity regions. Results suggest, that in this case, the statistics of the environment may be more relevant than the architecture selected to perform the image segmentation.

A Wide Color Gamut and Noniridescent Zinc-Anode Asymmetric Electrochromic Device for Self-Sustaining Color-Adaptive Bio-Camouflage System.

Inspired by camouflage-colored organisms, the development of bio-camouflage systems using electrochromic (EC) technology has gained significant interest. However, existing EC systems struggle with achieving a wide color gamut, noniridescent colors, and self-sustainability. Herein, a self-sustainable color-adaptive bio-camouflage system integrating EC and nanogenerator (NG) technologies, enabling environmental color adaptation, and thermal regulation without an external power source is proposed. The system is based on a zinc-anode EC device (ZECD) with an asymmetric structure, incorporating flexible tungsten oxide and vanadium oxide electrodes. During the EC process, tungsten oxide shifts between blue and transparent, allowing near-infrared thermal modulation, while the vanadium oxide transitions from yellow to transparent. This design enables reversible near-infrared modulation and noniridescent color conversion among black, blue, green, yellow, and transparent. For the self-sustainability of the system, an electromagnetic and triboelectric hybrid NG that collects biomechanical energy is developed. In a typical driven cycle, the integrated system transitions colors and achieves significant near-infrared spectral modulation, demonstrating environmental adaptability and thermal regulation. Experiments on human skin and simulated chameleon color changes further confirm the system's effectiveness. This work highlights the potential of integrating EC and NG technologies to advance color-adaptive camouflage systems, opening new an avenue for bio-camouflage design.

Temporal and spatial analysis of event-related potentials in response to color saliency differences among various color vision types.

Human color vision exhibits significant diversity that cannot be fully explained by categorical classifications. Understanding how individuals with different color vision phenotypes perceive, recognize, and react to the same physical stimuli provides valuable insights into sensory characteristics. This study aimed to identify behavioral and neural differences between different color visions, primarily classified as typical trichromats and anomalous trichromats, in response to two chromatic stimuli, blue-green and red, during an attention-demanding oddball task. We analyzed the P3 component of event-related potentials (ERPs), associated with attention, and conducted a broad spatiotemporal exploration of neural differences. Behavioral responses were also analyzed to complement neural data. Participants included typical trichromats (n = 13) and anomalous trichromats (n = 5), and the chromatic stimuli were presented in an oddball paradigm. Typical trichromats exhibited faster potentiation from the occipital to parietal regions in response to the more salient red stimulus, particularly in the area overlapping with the P3 component. In contrast, anomalous trichromats revealed faster potentiation to the expected more salient blue-green stimulus in the occipital to parietal regions, with no other significant neural differences between stimuli. Comparisons between the color vision types showed no significant overall neural differences. The large variability in red-green sensitivity among anomalous trichromats, along with neural variability not fully explained by this sensitivity, likely contributed to the absence of clear neural distinctions based on color saliency. While reaction times were influenced by red-green sensitivity, neural signals showed ambiguity regarding saliency differences. These findings suggest that factors beyond red-green sensitivity influenced neural activity related to color perception and cognition in minority color vision phenotypes. Further research with larger sample sizes is needed to more comprehensively explore these neural dynamics and their broader implications.

Teaching a More Accurate Model of the Evolution of Human Skin Color

In popular materials designed to teach American students about the evolution of human skin color, students are guided toward a model in which ancestral latitude predicts levels of skin pigmentation. While this model agrees with data from people whose ancestors practiced intensive agriculture in Europe, Asia, and Africa, this model does not match data from other human populations across the globe, including the predicted skin pigmentation of ancient hunter-gatherer populations who maintained long-term settlements in these same regions. In this review, we discuss findings from ancient genome sequencing and provide guidance on teaching an updated model on the evolution of human skin color. (To increase accessibility for non-specialists, we present here a targeted rationale for updating classroom teaching practices, with a set of frequently asked questions regarding the current state of scientific research on this topic addressed in supplemental material.) With this update, we hope to help students avoid common misconceptions about human evolution—particularly, that the evolutionary pressures encountered by those who adopted a single human culture would apply to all humans, everywhere—and leverage authentic data and argumentation to convey the anti-racist reality that people with a wide range of skin colors thrived in high-latitude regions for many thousands of years, just as students with a wide range of skin colors can thrive in whatever place they currently call home.

Enhancing Public Safety: A Comprehensive Analysis of Crime Vision Strategies

There is an abnormal increase in the crime rate and also the number of criminals are increasing, this leads towards a great concern about the security issues. Crime preventions and criminal identification are the primary issues before the police personnel, since property and lives protection are the basic concerns of the police but to combat the crime, the availability of police personnel is limited. With the advent of security technology, cameras especially CCTV have been installed in many public and private areas to provide surveillance activities. The footage of the CCTV can be used to identify suspects on scene. This Real time criminal identification system based on face recognition works with a fully automated facial recognition system. HAAR feature-based cascade classifier and OpenCV LBPH (Local Binary Pattern Histograms) Algorithms are used for Face detection and recognition. This system will be able to detect face and recognize face automatically in real time. An accurate location of the face is still a challenging task. This Framework has been widely used by researchers in order to detect the location of faces and objects in a given image. Face detection classifiers are shared by public communities, such as OpenCV. The automatically tagging feature adds a new dimension to sharing pictures among the people who are in the picture and also gives the idea to other people about who the person is in the image. In our project, we have studied and implemented a pretty simple but very effective face detection using CNN algorithm which takes human skin color into account. Our aim, which we believe we have reached, was to develop a system that can be used by police or investigation department to recognize criminal from their faces. The method of face recognition used is fast, robust, reasonably simple and accurate with a relatively simple and easy to understand algorithms and technique.

Исследование линейности цветовосприятия человека в графическом интерфейсе систем управления

The work is aimed at studying the process of human perception of visual information in conditions of interaction with a certain interface. The authors describe experimental research of the linearity of human colour perception in the graphical interface of control systems when observing colour pictograms in a conditional interface. To analyze the mechanism operation of the visual information perception, an information model of visual perception is used. Features of human perception of visual information can be of both an individual nature associated with a specific individual, and an external nature associated with the systemic interference of the operator’s direct interaction with the interface. The paper defines the factors of the study and describes the methodology for preparing stimulus material using the Processing programming language. As a tool for conducting the experiment, a software and hardware complex recording oculomotor activity Eye-tracker SMI RED 250 is used. The importance of creating effective user interfaces for control systems of complex objects and insufficient study of adapting interfaces to the features of human perception of visual information at the perceptual level of awareness determine the relevance of the study. The means of mathematical statistics process the obtained parametric data of the template for examining the stimulus material. The results got in the experiment allow concluding that the mechanism of human visual information perception, when the colour spot brightness decreases, remains sensitive to yellow colour the longest.

Single-Shot Multispectral Encoding: Advancing Optical Lithography for Encryption and Spectroscopy.

Most modern optical display and sensing devices utilize a limited number of spectral units within the visible range, based on human color perception. In contrast, the rapid advancement of machine-based pattern recognition and spectral analysis could facilitate the use of multispectral functional units, yet the challenge of creating complex, high-definition, and reproducible patterns with an increasing number of spectral units limits their widespread application. Here, we report a technique for optical lithography that employs a single-shot exposure to reproduce perovskite films with spatially controlled optical band gaps through light-induced compositional modulations. Luminescent patterns are designed to program correlations between spatial and spectral information, covering the entire visible spectral range. Using this platform, we demonstrate multispectral encoding patterns for encryption and multivariate optical converters for dispersive optics-free spectroscopy with high spectral resolution. The fabrication process is conducted at room temperature and can be extended to other material and device platforms.

A circuit motif for color in the human foveal retina

The neural pathways that start human color vision begin in the complex synaptic network of the foveal retina where signals originating in long (L), middle (M), and short (S) wavelength-sensitive cone photoreceptor types are compared through antagonistic interactions, referred to as opponency. In nonhuman primates, two cone opponent pathways are well established: an L vs. M cone circuit linked to the midget ganglion cell type, often called the red-green pathway, and an S vs. L + M cone circuit linked to the small bistratified ganglion cell type, often called the blue-yellow pathway. These pathways have been taken to correspond in human vision to cardinal directions in a trichromatic color space, providing the parallel inputs to higher-level color processing. Yet linking cone opponency in the nonhuman primate retina to color mechanisms in human vision has proven particularly difficult. Here, we apply connectomic reconstruction to the human foveal retina to trace parallel excitatory synaptic outputs from the S-ON (or "blue-cone") bipolar cell to the small bistratified cell and two additional ganglion cell types: a large bistratified ganglion cell and a subpopulation of ON-midget ganglion cells, whose synaptic connections suggest a significant and unique role in color vision. These two ganglion cell types are postsynaptic to both S-ON and L vs. M opponent midget bipolar cells and thus define excitatory pathways in the foveal retina that merge the cardinal red-green and blue-yellow circuits, with the potential for trichromatic cone opponency at the first stage of human vision.

The biochemistry of melanogenesis: an insight into the function and mechanism of melanogenesis-related proteins.

Melanin is an amino acid derivative produced by melanocyte through a series of enzymatic reactions using tyrosinase as substrate. Human skin and hair color is also closely related to melanin, so understanding the mechanisms and proteins that produce melanin is very important. There are many proteins involved in the process of melanin expression, For example, proteins involved in melanin formation such as p53, HNF-1α (Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1α), SOX10 (Sry-related HMg-Box gene 10) and pax3 (paired box gene 3), MC1R(Melanocortin 1 Receptor), MITF (Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor), TYR (tyrosinase), TYRP1 (tyrosinase-related protein-1), TYRP2 (tyrosinase-related protein-2), and can be regulated by changing their content to control the production rate of melanin. Others, such as OA1 (ocular albinism type 1), Par-2 (protease-activated receptor 2) and Mlph (Melanophilin), have been found to control the transfer rate of melanosomes from melanocytes to keratinocytes, and regulate the amount of human epidermal melanin to control the depth of human skin color. In addition to the above proteins, there are other protein families also involved in the process of melanin expression, such as BLOC, Rab and Rho. This article reviews the origin of melanocytes, the related proteins affecting melanin and the basic causes of related gene mutations. In addition, we also summarized the active ingredients of 5 popular whitening cosmetics and their mechanisms of action.

Increased color preference through the introduction of luminance noise in chromatic stimuli

Humans exhibit consistent color preferences that are often described as a curvilinear pattern across hues. The recent literature posits that color preference is linked to the preference for objects or other entities associated with those colors. However, many studies examine this preference using isoluminant colors, which don’t reflect the natural viewing experience typically influenced by different light intensities. The inclusion of random luminance levels (luminance noise) in chromatic stimuli may provide an initial step towards assessing color preference as it is presented in the real world. Employing mosaic stimuli, this study aimed to evaluate the influence of luminance noise on human color preference. Thirty normal trichromats engaged in a two-alternative forced-choice paradigm, indicating their color preferences between presented pairs. The chromatic stimuli included saturated versions of 8 standard hues, presented in mosaics with varying diameters under different luminance noise conditions. Results indicated that the inclusion of luminance noise increased color preference across all hues, specifically under the high luminance noise range, while the curvilinear pattern remained unchanged. Finally, women exhibit a greater sensitivity to the presence of luminance noise than men, potentially due to differences between men and women in aesthetic evaluation strategies.

Rapid counting of coliforms and Escherichia coli by deep learning‐based classifier

AbstractTo ensure that food has been handled hygienically, manufacturers routinely examine the numbers of indicator bacteria, such as coliforms and Escherichia coli. Using the deep‐learning algorithm YOLO, we developed a classifier that automatically counts the number of coliforms (red colonies) and E. coli (blue colonies) on a chromogenic agar plate. Using Citrobacter freundii IAM 12471T and E. coli NBRC 3301, we trained our YOLO‐based classifier with images of Petri dishes grown with each strain alone (10 images) and/or with a mixture of both strains (5 images). When the performance of the classifier was evaluated using 83 images, the accuracy rates for coliforms and E. coli reached 99.4% and 99.5%, respectively. We then investigated whether this classifier could detect other, non‐trained coliform species (22 species) and E. coli strains (13 strains). The accuracy rates for coliforms and E. coli were 98.7% (90 Petri dishes) and 94.1% (46 Petri dishes), respectively. Furthermore, we verified the practical feasibility of the developed classifier using 38 meats (chicken, pork, and beef). The accuracy rates for coliforms and E. coli in meat isolates were 98.8% (80 Petri dishes) and 93.8% (35 Petri dishes), respectively. The time required to count coliforms/E. coli on a single plate was ~70 ms. This novel method should enable users to rapidly quantify coliforms/E. coli without relying on a human inspector's color vision, leading to improved assurance of food safety.

RGB Color Model: Effect of Color Change on a User in a VR Art Gallery Using Polygraph.

This paper presents computer and color vision research focusing on human color perception in VR environments. A VR art gallery with digital twins of original artworks is created for this experiment. In this research, the field of colorimetry and the application of the L*a*b* and RGB color models are applied. The inter-relationships of the two color models are applied to create a color modification of the VR art gallery environment using C# Script procedures. This color-edited VR environment works with a smooth change in color tone in a given time interval. At the same time, a sudden change in the color of the RGB environment is defined in this interval. This experiment aims to record a user's reaction embedded in a VR environment and the effect of color changes on human perception in a VR environment. This research uses lie detector sensors that record the physiological changes of the user embedded in VR. Five sensors are used to record the signal. An experiment on the influence of the user's color perception in a VR environment using lie detector sensors has never been conducted. This research defines the basic methodology for analyzing and evaluating the recorded signals from the lie detector. The presented text thus provides a basis for further research in the field of colors and human color vision in a VR environment and lays an objective basis for use in many scientific and commercial areas.

Tourism influences escape behavior of lizards in relationship with human clothing color

Increased tourism pressure modifies animal behavior, including alterations in anti-predator responses and foraging activity. In areas with high tourist presence, animals may become accustomed to increased human activity and adjust the intensity of some defensive responses. An animal’s anti-predation ability is usually estimated by measuring its Alert Initiation Distance (AID) and Flight Initiation Distance (FID). Both indexes are affected by multiple factors including the color of the observer’s clothing. Animal behavior is also influenced by human presence, and individuals may become accustomed to increased human presence, e.g. in tourist areas. In this study, we analysed the escape behavior of the endemic Cyprus rock agama (Laudakia cypriaca) in relation to the observers clothing color. Our results showed that AIDs and FIDs of agamas in tourist areas were significantly shorter than those in non-tourist areas. Moreover, in non-tourist areas, AIDs and FIDs of agamas were significantly longer when the observer wore red clothes, compared to green and grey clothes. Our results may be helpful in planning research taking into account various colored clothing based on expected reptilian reactions. Furthermore, our results may determine the proximity at which humans interact with animals, considering clothing color, to prevent negative impacts especially on rare and protected lizard species.

Fabrication of black wolfberry anthocyanin-based hydrogels for monitoring freshness and extending shelf-life of Dolang lamb

In this study, a black wolfberry anthocyanin-based indication label (BWIL) was developed using black wolfberry pigment (BWP) in combination with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) (PVA:CMC = 4:3). The potential use of BWIL for monitoring the freshness of Dorang lamb was further investigated. As revealed, physical cross-linking occurred between PVA, CMC and BWP during the preparation of BWIL. The addition of BWP promoted the internal cross-linking, porosity, and thermal stability of BWIL significantly (p < 0.05). Specifically, BWIL showed a distinct color change when exposed to the refrigerated conditions of Dorang lamb. After 6 days, 12 days and 16 days of lamb refrigeration, the ΔE of BWIL was 26.3, 28.6 and 30.7, respectively, which far exceeded the human eyes' color threshold discernible (ΔE = 3.5). Besides, the ΔE of BWIL was significantly correlated with pH, fat oxidation, and TVB-N content of Dorang lamb (p < 0.05). This result indicated that BWIL could be used for identifying the freshness of lamb accurately. Importantly, the shelf-life of lamb with BWIL was extended from 6 days to 16 days, which suggests that BWIL would be an effective tool for real-time freshness monitoring and shelf-life extending of Dorang lamb.

The modelling of flower colour: spectral purity or colour contrast as biologically relevant descriptors of flower colour signals for bees depending upon the perceptual task.

Flower colour is an important mediator of plant-pollinator interactions. While the reflectance of light from the flower surface and background are governed by physical properties, the perceptual interpretation of such information is generated by complex multilayered visual processing. Should quantitative modelling of flower signals strive for repeatable consistency enabled by parameter simplification, or should modelling reflect the dynamic way in which bees are known to process signals? We discuss why colour is an interpretation of spectral information by the brain of an animal. Different species, or individuals within a species, may respond differently to colour signals depending on sensory apparatus and/or individual experience. Humans and bees have different spectral ranges, but colour theory is strongly rooted in human colour perception and many principles of colour vision appear to be common. We discuss bee colour perception based on physiological, neuroanatomical and behavioural evidence to provide a pathway for modelling flower colours. We examine whether flower petals and floral guides as viewed against spectrally different backgrounds should be considered as a simple colour contrast problem or require a more dynamic consideration of how bees make perceptual decisions. We discuss that plants such as deceptive orchids may present signals to exploit bee perception, whilst many plants do provide honest signalling where perceived saturation indicates the probability of collecting nutritional rewards towards the centre of a flower that then facilitates effective pollination.

Multi-excitation photoluminescence spectroscopy system for gemstone analysis.

Luminescence spectra can reveal important chemical and structural information that can be used for gemstone characterization and identification. Traditionally, gemstone UV-excited luminescence is evaluated visually under mercury vapor lamp illumination. This approach is limited by several factors, including the mixture of mercury's emission peaks, possible filter degradation, an inability to separate overlapping emission features, and the sensitivity and subjectivity of human vision and color interpretation. A multi-excitation photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy system has been built for gemstone analysis, incorporating 261 and 405nm laser excitations to study gemstone emission features between 270 to 1000nm. This system presents significant improvements, extending the detection spectral range, increasing the sensitivity, accuracy and reproducibility of gemstone luminescence analysis. Luminescence analysis of commercially valuable gemstones are presented to demonstrate the system's suitability for gemstone identification. Examples include distinguishing natural from laboratory-grown diamonds, thermal and color treatment detection for corundum and pearls, respectively, and mineral type separation of emeralds and other green gemstones.

The mechanism of human color vision and potential implanted devices for artificial color vision.

Vision plays a major role in perceiving external stimuli and information in our daily lives. The neural mechanism of color vision is complicated, involving the co-ordinated functions of a variety of cells, such as retinal cells and lateral geniculate nucleus cells, as well as multiple levels of the visual cortex. In this work, we reviewed the history of experimental and theoretical studies on this issue, from the fundamental functions of the individual cells of the visual system to the coding in the transmission of neural signals and sophisticated brain processes at different levels. We discuss various hypotheses, models, and theories related to the color vision mechanism and present some suggestions for developing novel implanted devices that may help restore color vision in visually impaired people or introduce artificial color vision to those who need it.

TanrsColour: Transformer‐based medical image colourization with content and structure preservation

AbstractMedical image colouring techniques enable to colourize grey‐scale medical images for assisting doctors in diagnosis. Benefiting from the non‐linear fitting ability of deep neural network, deep medical image colouring techniques have achieved remarkable results. However, existing methods are still facing content and structure feature leakage, unrealistic colouring and poor scale invariability. Thus, this paper, proposes a Transformer‐based medical image colouring algorithm with long‐term dependency to avoid feature leakage of coloured images. To be specific, this method employs two different Transformer encoders to generate and encode feature sequences for grey‐scale medical images and real human colour slice images, respectively. Then, a novel multi‐layer Transformer decoder is used to stylize grey‐scale map image features based on the real physical colour feature sequences. For colouring images at different scales, we implement content‐ aware positional encoding with scale invariance and propose style‐aware positional encoding strategy to take realistic and physical colour prior into account. Extensive experimental results indicate our method has achieved better colourization effects than recent state‐of‐the‐art medical image colourization methods.

Anti-Melanogenic Activity of Ethanolic Extract from Garcinia atroviridis Fruits Using In Vitro Experiments, Network Pharmacology, Molecular Docking, and Molecular Dynamics Simulation.

Melanin, the pigment responsible for human skin color, increases susceptibility to UV radiation, leading to excessive melanin production and hyperpigmentation disorders. This study investigated the ethanolic extract of Garcinia atroviridis fruits for its phenolic and flavonoid contents, antioxidant activity, and impact on melanogenesis pathways using qRT-PCR and Western blot analysis. Utilizing network pharmacology, molecular docking, and dynamics simulations, researchers explored G. atroviridis fruit extract's active compounds, targets, and pharmacological effects on hyperpigmentation. G. atroviridis fruit extract exhibited antioxidant properties, scavenging DPPH• and ABTS•+ radicals radicals and chelating copper. It inhibited cellular tyrosinase activity and melanin content in stimulated B16F10 cells, downregulating TYR, TRP-1, phosphorylated CREB, CREB, and MITF proteins along with transcription levels of MITF, TYR, and TRP-2. LC-MS analysis identified thirty-three metabolites, with seventeen compounds selected for further investigation. Network pharmacology revealed 41 hyperpigmentation-associated genes and identified significant GO terms and KEGG pathways, including cancer-related pathways. Kaempferol-3-O-α-L-rhamnoside exhibited high binding affinity against MAPK3/ERK1, potentially regulating melanogenesis by inhibiting tyrosinase activity. Stable ligand-protein interactions in molecular dynamics simulations supported these findings. Overall, this study suggests that the ethanolic extract of G. atroviridis fruits possesses significant antioxidant, tyrosinase inhibitory, and anti-melanogenic properties mediated through key molecular targets and pathways.

Mapping and annotating genomic loci to prioritize genes and implicate distinct polygenic adaptations for skin color

Evidence for adaptation of human skin color to regional ultraviolet radiation suggests shared and distinct genetic variants across populations. However, skin color evolution and genetics in East Asians are understudied. We quantified skin color in 48,433 East Asians using image analysis and identified associated genetic variants and potential causal genes for skin color as well as their polygenic interplay with sun exposure. This genome-wide association study (GWAS) identified 12 known and 11 previously unreported loci and SNP-based heritability was 23–24%. Potential causal genes were determined through the identification of nonsynonymous variants, colocalization with gene expression in skin tissues, and expression levels in melanocytes. Genomic loci associated with pigmentation in East Asians substantially diverged from European populations, and we detected signatures of polygenic adaptation. This large GWAS for objectively quantified skin color in an East Asian population improves understanding of the genetic architecture and polygenic adaptation of skin color and prioritizes potential causal genes.