Human Clavicle Research Articles

Postmortem interval estimation of human skeletonized remains through luminol chemiluminescence.

Postmortem interval (PMI) estimation represents a significant challenge in the forensic sciences, particularly when dealing with human skeletal remains. A screening protocol for distinguishing possible remains of forensic interest is a crucial tool for judicial purposes. In this context, luminol chemiluminescence emerges as a promising method, with low overall costs and required time. This method is primarily used as a presumptive test, based on the understanding that the intensity of the chemiluminescence reactions decreases with an increase in the postmortem interval, thus underlining its practical implications.This research aims to expand previous research on the potential of luminol chemiluminescence, evaluating its usefulness in estimating PMI. Our sample comprised 239 human clavicles, with known PMI. The luminol solution was sprayed on each powder bone sample in a dark room, observed by the naked eye and photographed. The intensity of the chemiluminescence reaction was measured using a binary and a 5-level scale.The present results reveal that this method is a suitable tool for PMI estimation as a presumptive test, reducing time and costs in criminal investigations. The findings underscore the high sensitivity of luminol chemiluminescence for detecting recent PMI but also highlight a notable incidence of false positives. Thus, our results confirm luminol chemiluminescence as a powerful tool for dating time of death, particularly for identifying forensic relevant remains. Still, the relatively low specificity indicates that it should be complemented with additional tests for further confirmation and scientific validation of the remains' forensic relevance.

Conformity of Three Pre-Contoured Clavicular Plates Compared Using Personalized 3D-Printed Models of Clavicles from Patients.

The human clavicle's unique S-shaped, three-dimensional structure complicates fracture management. This study evaluated the anatomical conformity of pre-contoured anatomical plates using 3D-printed clavicle models. CT scans from 30 patients (15 males and 15 females) were used to create these models. Three brands of distal clavicle plate systems (Acumed, Synthes, and Arthrex) were tested for fit. Measurements included the distance from the distal end of the clavicle to the plate's lateral end, the gap between the clavicle and the plate, and the overhang distance. Results showed significant differences in clavicle length between sexes, with men having a mean length of 156.1 ± 7.6 mm and women 138.4 ± 4.3 mm, both with normal distribution (p > 0.05). The mean lateral distance was 7.9 ± 1.7 mm, and the mean medial gap was 3.6 ± 3.0 mm, showing no significant differences between products or sexes. The mean overhang distance was 5.8 ± 4.6 mm, with larger values in women for the Acumed (p = 0.037) and Arthrex (p = 0.000) plates. Overall, pre-contoured plates exhibited notable discrepancies, especially in shorter clavicles.

XRF identification of sharp-force trauma in fresh and dry human bone under varied experimental heat conditions

Heat-induced fractures can be hard to distinguish from sharp force traumas. This challenge can negatively impact medico-legal analysis. The present study aimed to experimentally assess if X-ray fluorescence (XRF) can be used to detect chemical traces transferred from the blade of a sharp instrument onto both fresh and dry human bones. This was performed by inducing sharp force traumas with five different instruments on 20 fresh and 20 dry human clavicles. All bone samples were probed before and after experimental burning (at 500 °C, 700 °C, 900 °C and 1100 °C). Our results show that XRF is potentially useful for detecting iron traces in fresh human bone, both unburned and burned. However, we were not able to clearly detect iron traces from the blades in bones that have been previously inhumed, since exogenous iron acquired during diagenesis masks the iron traces originating from the blade.

The effects of exogenous substances on the color of heated bones.

Burned bone coloration has been used for decades to help in the bioanthropological analysis of burned human bones. However, there is a variety of factors that can interfere with the coloration manifested by bones exposed to heat, resulting in colors that differ from the usual black to white gradient. In this study, we evaluated possible causes of unusual coloration changes and hues in burned bone. For that purpose, defleshed fresh pig (Sus scrofa) ribs as well as fresh and dry human clavicles were burned at four different temperatures (500, 700, 900 and 1100°C) in contact with different materials (CaO, Zn, Fe, Cu, Mn, and polyester cloth). Observable color changes were assessed through naked eye observation and description, Munsell color charts, and reflectance spectrophotometry. Additionally, chemical changes in bone were assessed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy in attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR) and x-ray fluorescence (XRF). Our results showed that some materials did affect usual burned bone coloration (Fe, Mn, Cu, Zn) and correspondent FTIR-ATR and XRF spectra. As for other materials, although no effect on visual bone coloration was observed, they still affected FTIR-ATR and XRF spectra (CaO and cloth). This study can contribute to the anthropological analysis of burned human remains, providing some answers to what can cause unusual types of heat-induced colorations.

Morphological and Topographical Anatomy of the Nutrient Foramen in the Clavicle: A Cross-sectional Study

Introduction: The clavicle is the first bone to ossify during the fifth to sixth week of gestation and the last to complete the process. It develops from intramembranous ossification. Opinions vary regarding the significance of the nutrient foramen in the clavicle. Aim: To comprehensively understand the topographic anatomy of the nutrient foramen in adult human clavicles and its clinical importance. Materials and Methods: This cross-sectional study was conducted on 50 clavicles at the Department of Anatomy, Government Medical College Srinagar, from September 2023 to December 2023. The nutrient foramina were macroscopically observed using a magnifying lens to determine their number, location, direction, and patency. Vernier calipers were used to measure various foraminal dimensions, and the Foramen Index (FI) was calculated using the Hughes formula. The data was entered into Microsoft Excel 2016 and analysed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22.0. Results: The study included 20 right-sided clavicles and 30 left-sided clavicles (total 50). Approximately 47 (94%) clavicles had a single nutrient foramen, while 3 (6%) clavicles had double nutrient foramina. All right-sided clavicles (100%) had a single nutrient foramen. Among the left-sided clavicles, 27 (90%) had a single foramen, and three clavicles (10%) had double foramina. Nutrient foramina were patent in 20 (100%) right-sided clavicles and 9 (30%) left-sided clavicles, meaning they were non-patent in 21 (70%) left-sided clavicles. Most clavicles had the nutrient foramen located on the posterior surface (42, 84%), while 8 (4%) had the nutrient foramen on the inferior surface. The nutrient foramen was noted in the middle third of the clavicle in about 35 (70%) clavicles, on the medial third in 10 (20%) clavicles, and on the lateral third in 5 (10%) clavicles. Conclusion: Nutrient foramina are predominantly located in the middle one-third region and on the posterior surface of the clavicle. As microvascular bone graft transfer is gaining popularity, surgeons must be familiar with the topography of the nutrient foramina of the clavicle to ensure successful bone grafting.

An Assessment of Intra- and Interobserver Error in Luminol Chemiluminescence as a Presumptive Test for Postmortem Interval Estimation

Postmortem interval (PMI) estimation constitutes a challenge for forensic anthropologists. The application of the luminol technique as a preliminary test for PMI estimation is considered easy to use and inexpensive. The objective of our study is to validate luminol chemiluminescence testing through the assessment of intra- and interobserver error. Our sample included 266 human clavicles, with known PMIs ranging between 2655 days and 450 years. After sample preparation, luminol was applied, and the results were observed by two different observers. The intensity of the reaction was measured using a binary scale and a 5-level scale, according to the increasing degree of chemiluminescence. The Kappa statistic was used for the assessment of the intra- and interobserver agreement. The obtained results showed total interobserver error agreement regarding the binary scale and a K = 0.98 (95% CI: 0.97–0.99) regarding the 5-level scale. Additionally, Observer 1 and Observer 2 obtained a 100% agreement concerning the binary scale and a K = 1 (95%CI 0.99–1) and K = 0.99 (95% CI 0.99–1), respectively, concerning the 5-level scale. According to our research, it is possible to conclude that luminol chemiluminescence testing is suitable as a rapid diagnostic test, revealing this method as practically independent of observation error.

Biomechanical and clinical evaluation of minimal invasive plate osteosynthesis for two-part clavicle shaft fractures

BackgroundMany surgical treatment methods exist for clavicle shaft fractures. A locking compression plate (LCP) fixation with three screws per fracture side is commonly used. For certain fractures a stabilization with 2 screws per side is potentially suitable, offering the advantage of reduced soft tissue approach, while avoiding the disadvantages of minimally-invasive nailing at the same time. This hypothesis was evaluated biomechanically and clinically.MethodsFour treatment procedures were investigated biomechanically using composite human clavicle specimens. A load-to-failure test was performed using a three-point cantilever test. In group 1, a simple shaft fracture was simulated and stabilized with 2 screws per fracture side (5-hole LCP). In the second group 3 screws per side (7-hole LCP) were used. In group 3, a non-reduced fracture zone was simulated and treated with 3 screws per side (7-hole LCP). In group 4, an anatomically reduced fracture zone was simulated and treated with 3 screws per side (7-hole LCP). Furthermore 27 patients treated with a short plate and 2 screws per side (similar to group 1) were assessed after a minimum follow-up of 12 months (Constant and DASH Score).ResultsThe maximum load-to-failure of group 1 was 367N. We observed the highest load-to-failure in group 2 with 497N and the lowest in group 3 with 90N. In group 4 a maximum load-to-failure of 298N could be evaluated. There was no significant difference in load-to-failure between the treatment of a simple clavicle fracture using 5- or 7-hole LCP (p = 0.121). However, we found a significant difference of load-to-failure between the simple and anatomically reduced fracture using a 7-hole plate (p = 0.014). The mean constant score of the surgically treated patients was 95 and the DASH score 3.0. Fracture consolidation was observed in 96.3%.ConclusionsFor certain non-fragmented and well interlocking 2-part fractures, a plate osteosynthesis fixed with only 2 screws per fracture side might offer sufficient biomechanical stability, better soft tissue preservation and comparable fusion rates compared to the operative treatment with 3 screws per side. However, the maximum load-to-failure of the 7-hole LCP was higher than of the 5-hole LCP, but this difference was not statistically significant.Trial registrationApproval from the ethics committee of the Technical University of Dresden was retrospectively obtained (EK 588122019).

Morphological Study of Attachment of Costoclavicular Ligament on the Dry Human Clavicles in North Indian Population

Morphological Study of Attachment of Costoclavicular Ligament on the Dry Human Clavicles in North Indian Population

Morphometric and Topographic Study of Nutrient Foramen in Human Clavicle in North India

Background& Aims: The Clavicle also known as Collar bone is the only long bone of the human skeleton which is placed horizontally. The vascularized bone like clavicle helps principally in bone grafting and joint allograft. The morphometrical and topographical knowledge of nutrient foramina is very important in surgical and orthopaedical procedures. The aim of this study is to determine the number, position, location and direction of nutrient foramen in human clavicle bones. Material and methods: The present study was conducted on 60 human dry adult clavicle bones of unknown age and sex, which were obtained from the Department of Anatomy, Govt Medical college, Jammu. Results: The nutrient foramen was present in all 60 (100%) clavicle bones. One nutrient foramen was present in 63.3%, two in 28.3% and three in 8.3% of clavicles. Total 87 nutrient foramina were observed in our study. The nutrient foramina were predominantly located in the middle 1/3rd of the clavicle bones. In addition, the predominant position of nutrient foramen was on inferior surface of clavicle. The direction of nutrient foramina in all clavicle bones was towards the acromial end in present study. Conclusion: The knowledge of nutrient foramina is very important in surgical and orthopaedical procedures like bone grafting and more recently in microsurgical vascularised bone transplantation. Keywords: Morphometric and topographic study, nutrient foramen, human clavicle

Incidence of Rhomboid Impression in the Adult Human Clavicles

Background and Aims: The attachment of the ligament on the inferior surface of medial two third of clavicle produce various patterns like tubercles, grooves etc. called as the rhomboid impression. This impression although a normal morphological variant may be misdiagnosed as pathological lesion like necrosis, tumour in radiological images besides this, the study of rhomboid impression is very scanty in North Indian population. So a curious desire has developed to conduct this study. Material and methods: The present cross-sectional descriptive study was done on dried specimens of adult human clavicles (60) obtained from the department of Government medical college Jammu. This study was done over a period of one year. The morphology of the clavicles was studied, and various types of rhomboid impression were observed. Results: The various patterns of rhomboid impressions found in our study were flat and rough, flat and smooth, depressed and rough, depressed and smooth, elevated and rough and elevated and smooth. Conclusions: The results of present study concluded that the impression on the inferior surface of medial two third of clavicle i.e. Rhomboid impression was present in all clavicle bones. The predominant type of rhomboid impression on both sides was type1 (flat and rough). Keywords: Clavicle, costoclavicular ligament, rhomboid impression

Anatomical Variations of Nutrient Foramina in Dry Adult Human Clavicles: Morphological and Morphometrical Research

Anatomical Variations of Nutrient Foramina in Dry Adult Human Clavicles: Morphological and Morphometrical Research

OSTEOMETRIC METHOD FOR RECONSTRUCTING THE BIACROMIAL BREADTH OF THE SHOULDERS FROM THE CLAVICLES IN FORENSIC EXAMINATION OF BONE REMAINS

Positive identification of unknown corpses and bone remains often pose significant challenges for practitioners and requires the use of forensic anthropological methods. The purpose of this study was to develop new methods for reconstructing the antemortem biacromial breadth of the shoulders (BAB) using osteometric measurements of the human clavicle. For this purpose, bone samples from two anatomical collections were used: collection of the Department of Anthropology of Lomonosov Moscow State University and collection of the Russian Center for Forensic Medical Examination (Moscow, Russia). The study showed the possibility of correct reconstruction of BAB using regression equations with expanded (13) or reduced (3-5) sets of osteometric parameters. The methods described in the article can be applied both in forensic context and in anthropological studies.

Morphometry and Sexual Dimorphism of the Human Clavicle in South Indian Population

Background: In forensic anthropology, determining an individual's sex is the fundamental criteria of identification, but this is a tough task that gets considerably more difficult when only a single bone, such as the clavicle, is available. In physical anthropology, determining the sex of a deceased individual is a fundamental prerequisite. Physical anthropologists have gotten more concerned about the difficulties of human identity in recent years. Traditional techniques of sexing bone are subjective and ineffective when absolute sexing precision is desired, hence this study. Methods: Measurement of clavicular length and circumference using an Osteometric board or sliding and Vernier Callipers product from 1128 dry clavicles of unknown sex and age procured from various medical institutions and departments of anthropology in south Inda. Length, inner angle, outer angle, the sum of angles, inner segment, middle segment, outside segment, width at the inner end at an inner angle, least width at conoid tubercle, at the outer end, and mid circumference have all been measured. Results and Discussion: The male mid-shaft circumference is 38.0±0.5mm on the right side and 36.5±0.5mm on the left side, whereas the female mid-shaft circumference is 31.4±0.3mm on the right side and 31.4±0.6mm on the left side. The length of the left clavicle is greater than the length of the right collarbone. The curvature of the right collarbone is higher than that of the left, resulting in a shorter right bone than the left. The clavicle of males has a higher mean across all parameters than females. Male clavicle length is more than female clavicle length, midshaft circumference is less in females than males, and breadth at an inner angle is shorter in females than men, all of which are statistically significant. The Mid-shaft Circumference as a sex-determination metric is statistically significant in differentiating the clavicle's sex. This delivers a better result than clavicle weight since clavicle weight fluctuates with age and the health state of the individual. Male clavicles have a larger Mid-shaft Circumference than female clavicles. KEY WORDS: Anthrozoology, Clavicle, Morphometry, Skeletal Remains, Mid-Shaft Circumference.

English

BACKGROUND The clavicle or collar bone is a modified long bone. It is the first bone to ossify in the membrane. The inferior surface of shaft of clavicle presents a subclavian groove. A nutrient foramen lies at the lateral end of the groove. The nutrient artery is derived from the supraclavicular or clavicular branch of thoracoacromial artery. A bone is supplied by a nutrient artery which passes through the small tunnel called as nutrient foramina. In orthopaedic procedures to preserve the circulation, the topographical knowledge of the nutrient foramen is important. The study was undertaken to analyse nutrient foramina in adult human clavicles in relation to their number, position, direction, and distribution over bone length. METHODS Our study consisted of 67 adult dry human clavicles (31 right sides and 36 left sides). The number, topography and direction of the foramina were studied. The distance of foramina from the sternal end & total length of the clavicles were measured in millimetres by using digital Vernier calipers. The foramen index was calculated by applying the Hughes formula: FI = (DNF TL) x 100. RESULTS Nutrient foramina were present in all the clavicles. Most of the clavicles have single nutrient foramen. We observed 62 (68.13 %) foramina on the posterior surface mostly in the middle 1 / 3rd region. All the nutrient foramina were directed towards acromial end and the foramina index (FI) was 50.2. CONCLUSIONS The topographical knowledge of the nutrient foramen is important in orthopaedic procedures like nail plating, K wire fixation, reduction, internal fixation devices for the treatment of fracture, coracoclavicular ligament repair and in free vascularized bone graft to preserve the circulation. KEY WORDS Clavicle, Nutrient Foramina, Nutrient Artery, Foramina Index (FI)

Variations in Nutrient Foramina of Clavicle – A Descriptive Study

Background: Human clavicle, an important bone of the pectoral girdle connects the upper appendicular skeleton to the axial skeleton. The nutrition and growth of the bone depend mainly on the nutrient artery. It enters the bone through the nutrient foramen. Hence this study aimed to study the number, position, location, direction, and distance of nutrient foramina of the clavicle from the sternal end. Methodology: In a descriptive study 79 dry adult human clavicles (40 right, 39 left) were studied, and mean foramen index (FI) was calculated. The data obtained were tabulated, results obtained and the inference was drawn. Results: The mean length of clavicles studied was 141.36 ± 11.11 mm (right 140.51 ± 11.10 mm, left 142.36 ± 11.14 mm). The average distance of foramina (DNF) from the sternal end was 61.48 ± 15.82 mm (right 62.88 ± 16.28 mm, left 59.96 ± 15.12 mm). Nutrient foramen was found in all the studied bones. The total foramina observed are 120. Forty-four bones have single (55.70%), 29 double (36.71%), and 6 triple (7.59%) foramina. Foramina were distributed on all four surfaces of the clavicle, predominantly on the posterior surface (52.50%). Most foramina were present on the middle third (67.50%) with an average FI% of 43.82 ± 11.85 (right 44.99 ± 12.09, left 42.43 ± 11.41). The foramina were directed toward the acromial end in all cases. Conclusion: The nutrient artery of the clavicle needs to be preserved for maintaining its vitality. Hence, the morphometric and topographic knowledge related to nutrient foramen and its variations is of immense importance to orthopedic surgeons and radiotherapists while treating clavicular pathologies.

An experimental modal analysis of clavicle bending modes

Clavicle fractures are common medical emergencies; their prevention through design of protection systems depends upon understanding injury mechanisms. This work analyzes the bending natural frequencies and mode shapes of the human cadaver clavicles in situ. The method applied includes experimental modal analysis (EMA) techniques on cadaver clavicles and correlates results with previous analyses. The clavicle response to shock depends on mechanical energy transmission between load and bone and requires an understanding of modal characteristics of the clavicle as well as the frequency range of the shock. The loads acting upon the clavicle may be represented by hard impacts (i.e. sport-related hits) or loads with short durations which can excite a wide frequency spectrum. Modal analyses of clavicles have been reported in literature, but those studies were performed on the clavicles isolated from the body. As a result, those analyses found mode shapes dependent upon different boundary conditions than those found in nature. In our study, EMA employed triaxial accelerometers and a force hammer, a testing procedure was developed, and data was analyzed. The EMA was performed with the clavicle supported in situ, and results include the coronal and axial plane first bending modes. Modal parameters obtained serve to design shock mitigation systems.

Morphological study of nutrient foramen in adult human clavicles

Introduction: The Clavicle is a modified long bone and only long bone which is placed horizontally and subcutaneously at the root of neck. It transmits the weight from upper limb to the axial skeleton. Nutrient foramen is the largest foramen on the long bones through which nutrient artery for the bones passes. The nutrient artery is the principal source of blood supply to a long bone, particularly important during its active growth period in the embryo and foetus, as well as during the early phase of ossification. The bone has a cylindrical part called the shaft and two ends, lateral and medial. The shaft is divisible into the lateral one-third and the medial two-thirds. The inferior surface of shaft of clavicle presents a subclavian groove. A Nutrient foramen lies at the lateral end of the groove running in a lateral direction. Aims & objectives: To note the position, number and direction of nutrient foramen Materials and Methods: The present study was performed on 100 adult human clavicles of unknown sex and age collected from the department of anatomy, Mysore medical college and research institute, Mysore. Clavicles were examined by direct observation to note the position, number and direction of nutrient foramen. A magnifying lens was used to observe the foramina. Results: The study was conducted on 100 adult human clavicles (50 right and 50 left), and we observed the following results: Nutrient foramina were present in 97 clavicles - 49 clavicles (right) and 48 clavicles (left). Single foramina was present in 80 clavicles, 41 clavicles (right) and 39 clavicles (left) Double foramina were present in 17 clavicles, 8 clavicles (right) and 9 clavicles (left). Absence of nutrient foramina were found in 3 clavicles, 1 clavicle (right) and 2 clavicles (left). All foramina were directed towards the acromial end of the clavicle. Conclusion: The knowledge of anatomical variations of nutrient foramina in clavicles are important for surgeons for performing surgical procedures like bone grafting and microsurgical vascularised bone transplantation. KEY WORDS: Clavicle, Nutrient Foramen, Bone Graft.

Morphometric Study of Nutrient Foramina of Dry Human Clavicles in Goan Population

Morphometric Study of Nutrient Foramina of Dry Human Clavicles in Goan Population

Morphology and Anthropometry of Rhomboid Impression of Clavicle and its Clinical Applications – A South Indian Population Study

Introduction: The medial end of clavicle is connected to the upper surface of anterior end of first rib and its costal cartilage by rhomboid ligament which assist the movements of pectoral girdle as well as resist the pull of medial end of clavicle by pectoralis major and sternocleidomastiod muscles. Consequently, the attachment of it on the clavicle produces various patterns like tubercles, grooves, etc. called as the rhomboid impression. This normal variant of rhomboid impression may be interpreted sometimes as pathological lesions like necrosis, osteomyelitis, and tumour. Also, the morphology of rhomboid impression varies in different population. Such study in South Indian population is very much sparse and so this study is planned for. The objective is to it is aimed to estimate the prevalence of various morphology of rhomboid impression, to measure the anthropometry of impression and the distance from the medial end of impression to medial end of clavicle. Subjects and Methods: This descriptive study was carried in 200 adult human dry clavicles of both sides and various patterns of rhomboid impression, anteroposterior and transverse diameter of impression and distance between the medial end of impression and medial end of clavicle was measured with digital vernier caliper. Statistical analysis was done and p-value of < 0.05 is considered to be significant. Results: The most common pattern observed was depression and rough (29%) followed by elevated and rough (28.5%). The resection length of the medial end of clavicle was 11 mm from the medial end of impression to medial end of clavicle. Conclusion: The findings of the present study on the morphology and anthropometry of rhomboid impression of adult human clavicles and the resection length of medial end of rhomboid impression from the medial end of clavicle will provide guidance for the anthropologists, orthopedicians, radiologists, vascular surgeons and in forensic investigations.

Sample preparation of bone tissue for MALDI-MSI for forensic and (pre)clinical applications

In the past decades, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry imaging (MALDI-MSI) has been applied to a broad range of biological samples, e.g., forensics and preclinical samples. The use of MALDI-MSI for the analysis of bone tissue has been limited due to the insulating properties of the material but more importantly the absence of a proper sample preparation protocol for undecalcified bone tissue. Undecalcified sections are preferred to retain sample integrity as much as possible or to study the tissue-bone bio interface in particular. Here, we optimized the sample preparation protocol of undecalcified bone samples, aimed at both targeted and untargeted applications for forensic and preclinical applications, respectively. Different concentrations of gelatin and carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) were tested as embedding materials. The composition of 20% gelatin and 7.5% CMC showed to support the tissue best while sectioning. Bone tissue has to be sectioned with a tungsten carbide knife in a longitudinal fashion, while the sections need to be supported with double-sided tapes to maintain the morphology of the tissue. The developed sectioning method was shown to be applicable on rat and mouse as well as human bone samples. Targeted (methadone and EDDP) as well as untargeted (unknown lipids) detection was demonstrated. DHB proved to be the most suitable matrix for the detection of methadone and EDDP in positive ion mode. The limit of detection (LOD) is estimated to approximately 50 pg/spot on bone tissue. The protocol was successfully applied to detect the presence of methadone and EDDP in a dosed rat femur and a dosed human clavicle. The best matrices for the untargeted detection of unknown lipids in mouse hind legs in positive ion mode were CHCA and DHB based on the number of tissue-specific peaks and signal-to-noise ratios. The developed and optimized sample preparation method, applicable on animal and human bones, opens the door for future forensic and (pre)clinical investigations.