Human Behaviour In Fire Research Articles

Simulated fire video collection for advancing understanding of human behavior in building fires.

The goal of the present research was to develop a video collection of simulated fires to investigate how people perceive growing building fires. In fire safety science, a critical factor to occupant responses to building fires is the pre-movement period, determined by how long it takes an individual to initiate taking protective action with an incipient fire. Key to studying the psychological processes that contribute to the duration of the pre-movement period is presenting human subjects with building fires. One approach used in previous research is to present videos of building fires to individuals via scenarios. The numerical simulations used to model fire dynamics can be used to render videos for these scenarios. However, such simulations have predominantly been used in fire protection engineering to design buildings and are relatively inaccessible to social scientists. The present study documents a collection of videos, based on numerical simulations, which can be used by researchers to study human behavior in fire. These videos display developing fires in different types of rooms, growing at different rates, different smoke thickness, among other characteristics. As part of a validation study, participants were presented with subsets of the video clips and were asked to rate the perceived risk posed by the simulated fire. We observed that ratings varied by the intensity and growth rate of the fires, smoke opacity, type of room, and where the viewpoint was located from the fire. These effects aligned with those observed in previous fire science research, providing evidence that the videos could elicit perceived risk using fire simulations. The present research indicates that future studies can utilize the video library of fire simulations to study human perceptions of developing building fires as situational factors are systematically manipulated.

Human behaviour in fire: Knowledge foundation and temporal evolution

Understanding human behaviour in fires (HBiF), whether in building or wildland fire contexts, is crucial for saving lives and managing evacuations. However, existing research lacks a comprehensive analysis of HBiF knowledge from both perspectives. To address this issue, we examined nearly 1900 HBiF-related research papers and their references, identifying around 6600 frequently cited references as the HBiF knowledge foundation. We focused on highly prominent items using metrics like citation frequency, burst, and centrality. By analysing co-citation patterns among these references, we unveiled current trends and waning areas of HBiF research. This study identifies knowledge gaps and potential future directions for the field, enabling both mapping of the research concerning our fundamental understanding of behavioural decision-making in fires as well as developing more effective life-saving strategies.

Fire Safety and Prevention Issues in Design of Tall Buildings

Fire safety design of tall buildings is crucial. The number of floors, the function, and the occupants' features build the complexity in the life and fire safety design of tall buildings. Because of the complexity of each tall building design, specific preventive measures are necessary more than the basic requirements given in the national and local codes. The fire safety design of the world-renowned tall buildings, including Guangzhou International Finance Centre (IFC), Capital Market Authority (CMA) Tower, and Jin Mao Tower are case studies and further focus is made on the facade design of tall buildings. The paper reviews the safety design issues and focuses on the fire evacuation models, estimations, and the effect of different parameters in the success of fire safety design of tall buildings. In addition to the various fire evacuation suggestions, the effect of human behavior in fire is also discussed through the literature review. Fire safety is not only an engineering problem to deal with, but also architects must know the holistic approach in the fire safety design of tall buildings since it involves their architectural design as well. The paper aimed to bring the most arguable issues in the fire safety design of tall buildings together and to highlight the value of different perspectives in achieving a promising fire safety design.

A Study on Evacuation Behavior in Physical and Virtual Reality Experiments

Comparing results obtained in Virtual Reality to those obtained in physical experiments is key for validation of Virtual Reality as a research method in the field of Human Behavior in Fire. A series of experiments based on similar evacuation scenarios in a high-rise building with evacuation elevators was conducted. The experiments consisted of a physical experiment in a building, and two Virtual Reality experiments in a virtual representation of the same building: one using a Cave Automatic Virtual Environment (CAVE), and one using a head-mounted display (HMD). The data obtained in the HMD experiment is compared to data obtained in the CAVE and physical experiment. The three datasets were compared in terms of pre-evacuation time, noticing escape routes, walking paths, exit choice, waiting times for the elevators and eye-tracking data related to emergency signage. The HMD experiment was able to reproduce the data obtained in the physical experiment in terms of pre-evacuation time and exit choice, but there were large differences with the results from the CAVE experiment. Possible factors affecting the data produced using Virtual Reality are identified, such as spatial orientation and movement in the virtual environment.

Pursuing behavioral realism in Virtual Reality for fire evacuation research

SummaryThe use of virtual reality in human behavior in fire research has the advantage of being able to produce results comparable to more traditional laboratory or field experiments. This method relies not only on the technology employed but also on the participants' perception of realism when exposed to a virtual emergency scenario. A virtual scenario can be perceived as realistic based on the way it looks and on the way objects in it operates. However, in some experiments, behavioral realism can be the most relevant feature to obtain meaningful results. In this article, knowledge gained by running four different virtual reality experiments is presented in the form of challenges and recommendations to enhance the realism of the virtual experience. Although not in a comprehensive way, these challenges and recommendations refer to different parts of the process of running a virtual reality experiment for research in human behavior in fire, from the design of the environment to the behavior of the participants in it. The recommendations provided are based on observations. By spreading this knowledge, it is expected to aid the broader fire safety engineering community to develop more realistic virtual reality experiments for data collection on human behavior in fire.

Developing and validating evacuation models for fire safety engineering

Evacuation models can adopt different approaches for the simulation of human behaviour in fire. This paper provides an overview of the most commonly used modelling methods to represent the evacuation process in a fire scenario. This is presented through a structure matching the engineering time-line model of evacuation. The evacuation model development process is discussed considering both data-driven empirical correlations as well as theory-based modelling approaches. Examples of alternative methods to the currently used evacuation modelling assumptions are also presented. These methods have been chosen to provide examples of cases in which revisions of well-established assumptions may be needed. This review mainly focuses on buildings and pedestrian evacuation scenarios. Nevertheless, many concepts presented are potentially applicable to traffic evacuation. Particular attention is given to the representation of the impact of smoke on the evacuation process, as this is an important issue for fire safety engineering. Finally, a discussion on existing methods and procedures for the verification and validation of evacuation models is presented and the need for their standardization is advocated.

Spatiotemporal mapping of evacuee response

SummaryThe analysis of evacuee behaviour and performance requires data on human behaviour from actual fire incidents. Unfortunately, such data is rarely collected and, if available, is often provided in different formats and levels of refinement, and does not provide sufficient narrative understanding. The lack of a standardized approach to collecting and reporting such data hinders our understanding of human behaviour in fire, theory development, as well as incident analysis and communication. In other fields, graphical notation systems are used to report events in a quick, reliable and standardized manner. This article outlines the development of a notation system that aims to better document evacuee performance. The proposed notation system is then applied to two historic case studies—the Knights of Columbus fire of 1942 and the Beverly Hills Supper Club fire of 1977—to illustrate the approach. Finally, limitations and future research needs of the presented notation system are discussed.

Developing a framework for fire investigations in informal settlements

Informal settlements regularly experience small and large fires. In South Africa, there were 5940 informal settlement fires during 2017, which is approximately 16 per day. Currently, post-fire investigations are often not being conducted, and close to 40% of all fire causes in informal settlements are labelled as “undetermined”. Conducting post-fire investigations can provide important information to develop better evidence-based responses for improving fire safety in these communities. It is acknowledged that due to the inherent nature of informal settlements high levels of certainty in fire-cause determination are often not possible. After ignition, the onset of flashover occurs rapidly, thus most structures are destroyed within minutes, and often multiple dwellings are involved in a single incident. This paper seeks to apply well-known forensic fire investigation principles (primarily using NFPA 921), to informal settlements to develop a framework and guidelines, in order to (a) identify the fire origin and the fire cause, (b) obtain data on human behaviour in fire, (c) understand the fire spread sequence, and (d) evaluate the effectiveness of suppression and response efforts. The proposed methodology was used to analyse the Imizamo Yethu fire that occurred in 2017. Additionally, the work highlights the challenges associated with conducting such investigations.

Forensic virtual reality: Investigating individual behavior in the MGM Grand fire

The forensic investigation of human behavior in fires can benefit from a first-hand perspective of what happened during the fire. Complementing the on-site investigation and the witnesses’ accounts with a virtual reality replication of the real fire, forensic investigators could gather valuable data from having non-victims experiencing it. This paper aims to introduce and develop the forensic virtual reality method as a tool to provide a better understanding of the behavior of the building occupants. To assess the method, a virtual reality scenario based on the conditions in a hotel room during the MGM Grand fire in 1980 was created, and 55 naïve participants were exposed to it. Their behavior was later compared to that of the survivors of the real fire. The results show that the virtual environment made approximately 50% of the participants feel urgency due to the emergency and act on it. A comparison to the data from the MGM Grand fire confirmed that real life behavior can be observed in the virtual environment, although the frequencies of actions performed were lower in the virtual reality experiments.

Letter to the Editor: Burning Down the Silos in a Multidisciplinary Field. Towards Unified Quality Criteria in Human Behaviour in Fire

Letter to the Editor: Burning Down the Silos in a Multidisciplinary Field. Towards Unified Quality Criteria in Human Behaviour in Fire

The impact of sampling methods on evacuation model convergence and egress time

Simulating human behaviour in fire is often one of the main challenges in designing complex buildings, structures or sites for the life safety of occupants. In fact, evacuation simulations represent a fundamental input to assess fire safety performance using a risk analysis approach. The variability in evacuee behaviours (e.g. pre-evacuation delays and uncongested walking speed) can be probabilistically simulated in egress models using distribution functions. The application of probabilistic simulations requires the input distributions to be sampled. This paper describes a series of eight repeated trial evacuations that were carried out using a classroom-based scenario. The paper then investigates how four different sampling methods (namely Simple Random, Stratified, Inversed Stratified and Halton) affect the ability of a computational egress tool to reach convergence when determining the total time for occupants to leave the room. The analysis found that the Stratified and the Inverse Stratified sampling approaches require the least number of simulation runs to converge while the Halton sampling approach needs the greatest number of simulation runs. Moreover, the results indicate that the Halton sampling generates the highest variance for the simulated total evacuation time and thus is more effective at examining scenarios that utilise the extreme ends of the distribution functions.

Passengers’ perceived ability to get out safely from an underground train station in an emergency situation

Many recent studies have been done on the development of evacuation systems and plans. There are also several studies on human behaviour in fire. However, little research has been done to understand how peoples' likely behaviour relates to their perceived ability to get out safely during an emergency, especially in a major transport hub like an underground train station. This study explores the beliefs and perceptions of 1134 train passengers and finds that those who report that they are likely to move to the exit immediately, wait for directions from the station staff, wait at assembly areas, help others with difficulties, choose the least crowded exit and/or use the escalators to get out also report that they expect to get out safely. In contrast, passengers who report that they are likely to do nothing and/or push others if necessary also report that they are less likely to get out safely.

Modelling and influencing human behaviour in fire

SummaryThe purpose of this article is to present a conceptual model of human behaviour in fire and its impact on egress modelling, life safety analyses and evacuation procedures. This model is based on a theoretical framework of individual decision‐making and response to emergencies. From this foundation, the conceptual model is populated with behavioural statements or mini‐theories distilled from articles and authoritative reports describing emergency incidents, observations from within the field of evacuation analysis and studies of human behaviour in fire and other emergencies. The conceptual model is intended to guide the egress tool developer, user and practitioner to better account for human behaviour in their respective roles. It is contended that a more credible representation of the evacuee response, that incorporates the behavioural statements described, provides both theoretical and practical advantages. Copyright © 2016 Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada. Fire and Materials © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Burning Down the Silos: Integrating new perspectives from the social sciences into human behavior in fire research.

The traditional social science disciplines can provide many benefits to the field of human behavior in fire (HBiF). First, the social sciences delve further into insights only marginally examined by HBiF researchers, in turn, expanding the depth of HBiF research. In this paper, I present examples of studies from the fields of social psychology and sociology that would expand HBiF research into non-engineering or "unobservable" aspects of behavior during a fire event. Second, the social sciences can provide insight into new areas of research; in turn, expanding the scope of HBiF research. In this section, I introduce pre- and post-fire studies and explore potential research questions that fall outside of the response period of a fire, the phase upon which most focus is currently placed. Third, the social sciences elucidate the value of research methods available to study human behavior. Qualitative research methods are specifically highlighted. These three benefits will allow HBiF researchers to collect a wider range of data, further develop and expand current behavioral knowledge, and increase the impact of this research for both social and engineering applications. Finally, I end with a discussion on possible ways to better integrate the social sciences within human behavior in fire.

Guidance for the Model User on Representing Human Behavior in Egress Models.

Structures are currently designed and constructed in accordance with prescriptive and performance-based (PBD) methodologies to ensure a certain level of occupant safety during fire emergencies. The performance-based approach requires the quantification of both ASET (Available Safe Egress Time) and RSET (Required Safe Egress Time) to determine the degree of safety provided. This article focuses on the RSET side of the equation, for which a fire protection or fire safety engineer would use some type of egress modelling approach to estimate evacuation performance. Often, simple engineering equations are applied to estimate the RSET value. Over time, more sophisticated computational tools have appeared-that go beyond basic flow calculations; e.g. simulating individual agent movement. Irrespective of the approach adopted, appropriate and accurate representation of human behavior in response to fire within these approaches is limited, mainly due to the lack of a comprehensive conceptual model of evacuee decision-making and behavior during fire emergencies. This article initially presents the set of behavioral statements, or mini-theories, currently available from various fire and disaster studies, organized using the overarching theory of decision-making and human behavior in disasters. Once presented, guidance is provided on how these behavioral statements might be incorporated into an evacuation model, in order to better represent human behavior in fire within the safety analysis being performed. The intent here is to improve the accuracy of the results produced by performance-based calculations and analyses.

Study into the Use of Signage on Exit Choice Behaviour in a Virtual Environment

The effectiveness of egress paths from a building could be attributed to good signage or intuitive Architecture but we know it is also influenced by human behaviour in fire. The extent to which human behaviour plays a role in the effectiveness of egress routes is not yet fully understood.The aim of this paper is to investigate human behaviour in a relatively simple study of exit choice. The study is conducted in a virtual environment by examining the effectiveness of additional floor-based chevron arrows when compared with conventional exit signage on the same escape routes.Fifty nine participants were asked to interact with the software to escape from a fire in the created virtual environment. Thirty two of the participants used a model with conventional exit signs only. Twenty seven of the participants used the model with exit signs and chevrons on the floor. After completing the virtual egress exercise the participants were given a questionnaire to help understand their behaviour during the task. This allowed the authors to compare results of the post experiment questionnaire with the video output of the test.This research is novel in that involves the use of already existing technologies for new purposes; in this case, commercial computer games engines, generally used for entertainment purposes. As technology reaches new levels it is inevitable that there will be overlap in functionality.This paper describes the experiments, analyses the information gleaned from the research and provides some conclusions for consideration by others in this field. By assessing exit choice behaviour and evacuation time it is possible to compare the effectiveness of the additional floor based signage as a fire protection measure provided above and beyond normal code requirements.

Panel: Fundamentals of egress calculations for life safety for egress assessments

SummaryThe purpose of this panel was to allow data users, that is, consultants and engineers, who assess the life safety of structures and regulators who approve these assessments the opportunity to discuss the current state of egress analysis from their perspectives. In other words, what datasets do engineers/consultants consistently use to assess the life safety of structures? How useful are these data and what additional data should/could data collectors and model developers provide to them to improve the quality of their work in the field? From this panel discussion, an egress roadmap for future research could be developed that would aid researchers in the field of human behaviour in fire to collect data and produce models that better support data users' needs and requirements. The format of the panel session was a brief response by engineering consultants, a data collector and an evacuation modeller to a series of questions related to the current status of egress analysis, followed by a facilitated open floor discussion on issues arising. The panel session was audio taped and the summary that follows, although not a verbatim account, is a close reflection of the views expressed and issues raised. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Agent-Based Fire Evacuation Model as a Tool for Fire Safety Design Assessment in Malaysia

Evacuation model is an important tool in formulating performance-based building design. It is a tool aims at helping designers assess the robustness of their design against factors such as human behaviour in fire. Currently, performance-based code for fire safety design has been the hot trend all over the world. Nevertheless, even though Malaysia is applying prescriptive-based code, performance-based approach for special buildings and mega projects are allowed. This shows that it is just a matter of time before performance-based code be fully adopted in place of prescriptive-based code in Malaysia. This paper aims to highlight how evacuation modelling may help designers assess the performance of their design. In this paper, an example of evacuation scenario was modelled and simulated using an agent-based fire evacuation model – FDS+Evac. The output of the simulation provide graphical representation such as the fire curve, the evacuation time, and the time to untenable condition that can be used to analyse the life safety objective based on concepts of ASET and RSET. The FED values of all occupants throughout the evacuation process are less than tenability criteria (0.3 FED). Therefore, it is concluded that all occupants have evacuated safely in the event of fire.

The validation of evacuation simulation models through the analysis of behavioural uncertainty

Both experimental and simulation data on fire evacuation are influenced by a component of uncertainty caused by the impact of the unexplained variance in human behaviour, namely behavioural uncertainty (BU). Evacuation model validation studies should include the study of this type of uncertainty during the comparison of experiments and simulation results. An evacuation model validation procedure is introduced in this paper to study the impact of BU. This methodology is presented through a case study for the comparison between repeated experimental data and simulation results produced by FDS+Evac, an evacuation model for the simulation of human behaviour in fire, which makes use of distribution laws.

A qualitative study of experiences, actions and motivations during accidental dwelling fires

SummaryThis paper outlines the initial stage of Kent Fire and Rescue Service's project to develop a comprehensive understanding of the behaviours and associated motivations of those directly experiencing an accidental dwelling fire (ADF). Although human behaviour in fires in public, commercial and industrial spaces is a well‐established area, for the past 30 years, the study of human behaviour in dwelling fires has not received a comparable degree of attention. The first stage of this applied research was a pilot study comprising semi‐structured interviews with 10 individuals who had experienced an ADF and suffered physical injury as a result. This paper will outline the background to and findings of this qualitative study. Key among the findings was that several interviewees clearly expressed their desire to take early action to tackle or mitigate the effects of a fire. It also identified that a majority of interviewees entered or attempted to enter the room of fire origin to investigate, tackle or mitigate the effects of the fire and also expressed a strong belief in the validity and appropriateness of such actions. Copyright © 2014 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.