Housing In Kenya Research Articles

The Uncertainty of Reusable Building Components/Materials A Subsidiary of Circular Economy in the Africa Construction Sector: The Issue of Affordable Housing in Kenya

There is growing interest in the adaptation of circular economy approaches in the construction sector, for developing African countries like Kenya with an increase in construction activities leading to more generation of construction wastes. The approach of circularity presents an alternative to reuse these construction or demolition wastes thereby lowering environmental risks and providing for a lower price for building components/materials required for affordable building projects. However, there is little, or no information on these reusable building components/materials, which lowers the confidence by construction stakeholders in using them. No information on its possible new life longevity (durability), its possible maintenance budget, and no means of enabling a design team to plan for its acquisition (accessibility) in a design project. This paper adopted a review of previous literature on these topics to search for possible solutions to the research questions, of which some literature provided only a list of requirements needed to give a level of information to reusable building elements. The paper went further to provide proposals for an information catalogue that would enable the insertion of reusable building elements’ Indicators of service (availability, reliability, and maintainability) obtainable from experience with the elements. Also, a format for a maintenance budget plan would be required during the new service life of the reused element. And a means of simulation using the Monte Carlo simulation tool to obtain reliable viability of access to reusable building elements in a transitional building in its design stage. These proposals would have to be put into practice to ascertain their effectiveness, meanwhile, other areas of further studies are provided in the paper.

Applicability of Public-Private Partnerships in the Development of Affordable Urban Housing in Kenya

The Constitution of Kenya 2010, Kenya Vision 2030, and many international commitments that Kenya is party to obligate the government to deliver decent, affordable, accessible, and quality housing for all Kenyans. Since independence, many strategies to fast-track housing development have been explored with mixed results. The annual housing demand stands at 250,000 units, with only 50,000 being developed through public and private means, hence a deficit of 200,000 units. Application of public-private partnerships (PPPs) models has been projected as the most appropriate strategy through which affordable housing can be availed in the country. PPPs address the problems related to inadequate capital, expertise, managerial, and technological applications that hinder the effective development of affordable urban housing. The study’s main focus was to evaluate the applicability of PPPs in the development of affordable urban housing. The study used the Delphi methodology of investigation, which uses iteration and building consensus to arrive at group decisions. Three Delphi rounds that involved 88 persons in three panels comprised of housing practitioners, housing financiers, and developers. It was found out during the first round that 95.5% of the panelists observed that PPPs can be utilized in the development of affordable urban housing, and 4.5% stated that they believed that PPPs may be inappropriate for the sector. It was also found out that configuring and positioning public and private players’ concerns regarding PPP models increases its applicability in the development of affordable urban housing. The main conclusion from the study is that PPP models are appropriate for the development of affordable urban housing.

Applicability of public-private partnershipsin the development of affordable urban housing in Kenya

The Constitution of Kenya 2010, Kenya Vision 2030, and many international commitments that Kenya is party to obligate the government to deliver decent, affordable, accessible, and quality housing for all Kenyans. Since independence, many strategies to fast-track housing development have been explored with mixed results. The annual housing demand stands at 250,000 units, with only 50,000 being developed through public and private means, hence a deficit of 200,000 units. Application of public-private partnerships (PPPs) models has been projected as the most appropriate strategy through which affordable housing can be availed in the country. PPPs address the problems related to inadequate capital, expertise, managerial, and technological applications that hinder the effective development of affordable urban housing. The study’s main focus was to evaluate the applicability of PPPs in the development of affordable urban housing. The study used the Delphi methodology of investigation, which uses iteration and building consensus to arrive at group decisions. Three Delphi rounds that involved 88 persons in three panels comprised of housing practitioners, housing financiers, and developers. It was found out during the first round that 95.5% of the panelists observed that PPPs can be utilized in the development of affordable urban housing, and 4.5% stated that they believed that PPPs may be inappropriate for the sector. It was also found out that configuring and positioning public and private players’ concerns regarding PPP models increases its applicability in the development of affordable urban housing. The main conclusion from the study is that PPP models are appropriate for the development of affordable urban housing.

A critique of the Supreme Court’s pronouncements on international law and the right to housing in Kenya in Mitu-Bell Welfare Society

Kenyan courts have long grappled with questions surrounding the place of international law in the legal landscape particularly after the promulgationof the 2010 Constitution. Moreover, socio-economic realities have created conditions such as poor and inadequate housing for portions of society, a significant number resultantly having to reside in informal settlements all over the country. Unregulated demolitions of these settlements have left thousands of these already precarious slum dwellers homeless and destitute. In light of these issues, the case of Mitu-Bell Welfare Society v Kenya Airports Authority & 2 others; Initiative for Strategic Litigation in Africa (amicus curiae) was expected to bring about clarity on the application of international law to issues such as human rights, as well as provide a definitive interpretation of the right to housing that would help mitigate injustices in this area. This paper analyses the Supreme Court of Kenya’s decision in Mitu-Bell Welfare Society, canvassing how the court addressed the applicability of international law and the interpretation of the right to housing.

Characterization of Healthy Housing in Africa: Method, Profiles, and Determinants.

Housing is a key social determinant of health with implications for both physical and mental health. The measurement of healthy housing and studies characterizing the same in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are uncommon. This study described a methodological approach employed in the assessment and characterization of healthy housing in SSA using the Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data for 15 countries and explored healthy housing determinants using a multiple survey-weighted logistic regression analysis. For all countries, we demonstrated that the healthy housing index developed using factor analysis reasonably satisfies both reliability and validity tests and can therefore be used to describe the distribution of healthy housing across different groups and in understanding the linkage with individual health outcomes. We infer from the results that unhealthy housing remains quite high in most SSA countries. Having a male head of the household was associated with decreased odds of healthy housing in Burkina Faso (OR = 0.80, CI = 0.68–0.95), Cameroon (OR = 0.65, CI = 0.57, 0.76), Malawi (OR = 0.70, CI = 0.64–0.78), and Senegal (OR = 0.62, CI = 0.51–0.74). Further, increasing household size was associated with reducing odds of healthy housing in Kenya (OR = 0.53, CI = 0.44–0.65), Namibia (OR = 0.34, CI = 0.24–0.48), Nigeria (OR = 0.57, CI = 0.46–0.71), and Uganda (OR = 0.79, CI = 0.67–0.94). Across all countries, household wealth was a strong determinant of healthy housing, with middle and rich households having higher odds of residing in healthy homes compared to poor households. Odds ratios ranged from 3.63 (CI = 2.96–4.44) for households in the middle wealth group in the DRC to 2812.2 (CI = 1634.8–4837.7) in Namibia’s wealthiest households. For other factors, the analysis also showed variation across countries. Our findings provide timely insights for the implementation of housing policies across SSA countries, drawing attention to aspects of housing that would promote occupant health and wellbeing. Beyond the contribution to the measurement of healthy housing in SSA, our paper highlights key policy and program issues that need further interrogation in the search for pathways to addressing the healthy housing deficit across most SSA countries. This has become critical amid the COVID-19 pandemic, where access to healthy housing is pivotal in its control.

Enhanced role of private sector through public private partnerships in low income urban housing in Kenya

PurposeLow income urban housing in Kenya is underdeveloped as a result of uninnovative financing, hence the many slums and informal settlements in the country, hence the need for enhanced participation of the private sector through application of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs), which has been cited as one of the possible solutions. The purpose of this study was to investigate and make predictions of the need for enhanced role of private sector in developing low income urban housing in Kenya through PPPs.Design/methodology/approachDelphi method of research was used to forecast the enhanced role of private sector through PPPs in the development of low income urban housing in Kenya. Three rounds Delphi iterations using three panels of housing financiers (30 in number), housing developers (28 in number) and housing practitioners (30 in number) were used. Data was collected through questionnaires throughout the three rounds, where the first round was exploratory in nature, the second round built on answers from round one, while round three was based on answers from round two, after which the mean and standard deviation values were calculated to show the level of consensus.FindingsResults showed that PPPs is one of the plausible ways through which low income urban housing in Kenya can be developed to address its shortage. Private sector in PPP transaction brings innovative technology, finance and efficiency, while government brings its assets such as land and other regulations long term contracts.Research limitations/implicationsThe research was focussed on the Nairobi city county area in analysing the need for enhanced role of the private parties. It focussed on a panel of Housing practitioners-officers in the State Department for housing and Nairobi city county; housing financiers and housing developers, without interviewing the beneficiaries of the method.Practical implicationsIt was, therefore, found out that PPPs models are applicable in developing low income urban housing because the country has the enabling environment for its effective application going forward. The implication of this study is that low income urban housing can be developed through the model.Social implicationsThe slums and informal settlements will have adequate, affordable and quality housing being introduced within their neighbourhoods, which reduces political and societal animosities.Originality/valueThis research has benefited from published literature on PPPs and original research on PPPs.

Opportunities accruing from the application of public private partnerships in down market urban housing in Kenya

The purpose of this study was to investigate the opportunities which accrue from application of PPPs in development of down market urban housing in Kenya, hence attracting private players to partner with the public sector. The provision of down market urban housing in Kenya faces challenges like: application of outdated technologies, inadequate innovation, financing and ineffective strategies. This has led to huge housing supply backlogs, estimated to be 2 million housing units, because the annual demand is 250,000 units, but only 50,000 can be produced. Stakeholders have therefore scouted for alternative strategies, including application of PPPs, to reduce the overreliance on public sector financing of housing. Delphi method was used to gauge the likely opportunities in the application of PPPs. A sampling frame constituting of housing developers, financiers and practitioners was used, out of which a population of 88 persons in three Delphi panels was used. A sample size of 30 persons in housing financiers, 28 developers and 30 housing practitioners was used. Three rounds of Delphi iterations were used. It was found out that PPPs brings opportunities like the leveraging of assets, capacities and strengths of partners, enhanced resource mobilization, technology, effectiveness and innovation in housing delivery. It was concluded that PPPs brings many opportunities which makes private sector attracted to the concept hence assisting in housing development. The conclusion is that owing to the benefits of applying PPPs, the concept can be used for increasing the housing stock in the country, especially for low income urban households.

The Tenants’ Right to Housing in Kenya: Is There Need to Address This Issue during the Covid-19 Pandemic

The Covid-19 pandemic has changed the lives of people in the world. Most of the governments have imposed restrictive measures on movement and association to ensure that the disease does not spread further into their countries. The government of Kenya has imposed a curfew to restrict movement of the disease. Further, there are regions in Kenya where movement into and out of those regions has been curtailed. The livelihoods of Kenyans from all walks of life have been distracted. Jobs have been lost. The economy of the country is dwindling. Kenyans have been advised to stay at home. The prevailing circumstances have forced some of the Kenyans to stay at home. The directive to stay at home to fight the pandemic presents a unique situation in the country. It requires people to stay indoors to reduce the transmission of the illness. The ball falls into the court of each and every citizen to seek shelter. However, due to the loss of jobs, most of the Kenyans wonder whether they will have shelter. The tenants, who have no source of income at the moment, wonder where they will get the money to pay their landlords to ensure they are not kicked out of their houses. Further, due to the declining economy, most of the tenants do not have sufficient cash to pay their rent. Failure to pay rent will render them homeless. Is there need to address this issue? Should we allow the landlords to deal with the tenants who do not pay rent? In my paper, I seek to address this delicate issue. To begin with, I will balance the rights between the landlord and the tenant. Later, I will recommend on what is to be done to ensure that this issue is resolved amicably.

Strategic Approaches and Delivery of Affordable Housing in Nairobi City County, Kenya

Affordable housing system is a word used in Kenya to refer to that part of society whose revenue is below the average revenue of the family. Affordable housing becomes a main problem particularly in developing countries where it is not possible for a majority of the population to purchase homes at market price. Most individuals around the world live in towns and 1 billion live in slums, which will double by 2030. Urban populations are increasing at a pace that is much quicker than they can be consumed and managed, resulting in requirements on services and infrastructure that exceed supply. This leaves most inhabitants in many emerging market towns with few choices but living in slums. Increasing access to affordable housing of high quality has a deep effect on the person as well as on society as a whole. However, housing is a difficult and capital-intensive industry characterized by delays and regulatory problems, resulting in it rarely gaining the spotlight on impact investors and social entrepreneurs. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the influence the strategic approaches adopted by the government in delivering affordable housing in Kenya with specific focus on Nairobi County. The specific objectives of this study were to determine the influence of modern construction technologies, innovative housing financing, collaborative approach and legal and regulatory reforms in delivering affordable housing in Kenya with specific focus on Nairobi County. The research was anchored on the theory of monopoly rivalry, regulatory theory and the model of cooperative strategy. The research also demonstrated a conceptual framework for the connection between the factors. Descriptive research design was used in the study. For this research, the target population was officers in the county government concerned with a total of 106 homes. Stratified random sampling and simple random sampling methods were utilized in selecting a sample size of 64, which represented 60 percent of the entire research population. Research used primary and secondary data. The primary data was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire administered to officers by drop-down and later by selecting technique. Using SPSS (version 21), data gathered was analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The study revealed that the use of modern construction technologies greatly influenced the delivery of affordable housing. The study also revealed that the innovative housing financing influenced the delivery of affordable housing to great extent. The study further found that the collaborative approaches had influenced the delivery of affordable housing by the government to a great extent. Based on the findings the study recommended that the government sensitize the developers to fully adopt modern technologies in construction of the houses, so as to reduce the costs of the houses. Additionally, the study recommended that the government come up with innovative financing such as allowing the access of pension benefits by individuals to help in financing the ownership of houses. The study also recommended that the government seek more collaborative opportunities such as through public private partnerships to help in realizing the goal of delivering affordable housing especially to the low income earners.

English

The State Department of Housing in Kenya puts the housing demand in the country at 250,000 housing units per year, while actual supply is 50,000 units p.a. This demand for housing has accumulated to 1.85 million units as at 2018. This has led to the growing proliferation of slums and informal settlements, with the Department showing that there are over 500 such settlements. This state of affairs has been partly attributed to under-investment in low cost housing by both public and private entities. Stakeholders have therefore recommended the application of Public Private Partnerships (PPPs), which increases the role of the private entities in housing production beyond the traditional procurement method. Under PPPs, the public sector cedes the duty of actual housing development and concentrates on creating an enabling environment for the private party to effectively and efficiently perform the function of shelter provision. In addition to creating an enabling environment, the governments undertake monitoring, evaluation, creation of standards and enforcement. This study utilized secondary review of the literature on the evolution on PPPs and focused group discussion with selected officials at the State Department for Housing in Kenya. The purpose was to juxtapose the secondary literature review on how the concept of PPPs has been appreciated as an alternative to the traditional procurement methods.  It was found out that private participation in infrastructure development has evolved over time, assuming many forms like: contracting out, privatization and lately PPPs. Kenya has been applying PPPs since the liberalization of the economy in 1994, though there are were earlier applications of the concept. The country has used PPPs in the hard infrastructure sectors like energy and transport, but little success has been recorded in housing development. It was concluded that PPPs are applicable in down market urban housing in Kenya since the concept has been successfully applied in other areas. Through PPPs, a sector like down market urban housing can access more capital resources, technology, innovation, efficiency and effectiveness. The implication of this finding is that more down market urban housing can be developed to address the huge gap witnessed in Kenya.   Key words: Public private partnerships, public sector/government, private sector/private parties, down market urban housing, low income urban households, evolution.

English

Article 43 1 (b) of the constitution of Kenya (2010), alongside other international treaties which the country is party to, obligates the state to provide housing for all Kenyans. These instruments place a greater emphasis on the slums and informal settlements upgrading and development, key among which is down market urban housing. Down market urban housing is principally housing for the low income urban households, or low cost housing. There are many challenges on this endeavour in Kenya, key among them being the application of outdated technologies, inadequate innovation, inadequate financing and low application of efficiency, effectiveness and economy considerations. This situation has led to backlogs in housing supply. The State Department of Housing in Kenya puts the demand for housing at 250,000 units per year while the supply is 50,000 units, creating an annual deficit of 200,000 units. Stakeholders have therefore scouted for alternative methods of addressing these gaps and PPPs have been cited as one of the possible solution to address the undersupply of down market urban housing. This study utilized the Delphi method to gauge the prospects of providing down market urban housing through strategic application of PPPs. It was found out that there are high prospects for applying PPPs in housing delivery. The public sector should come up with PPP models which can work locally, it should incentivise the private sector and more so create enabling environment. It was concluded that PPPs are applicable in the provision of down market urban housing with the right structuring. The recommendations made for Kenya and developing countries are to adopt application of PPPs if the country were to reduce the huge backlogs in housing. Key words: Public private partnerships (PPPs), down market urban housing, public and private sector, housing affordability/challenges and provision.

Economic and Innovative Factors Influence on Funding of the Supply-Side of Housing in Nairobi, Kenya

Housing impact on an economy is undisputed. Economic factors comprising market forces, cost of inputs, the macro economy and the cost of funding are one set of factors that impacts on the funding of the supply-side of housing. Financiers’ reactionary actions to encourage uptake of credit is undertaken by use of innovation and technology. This paper sets to establish the relationships between both economic and innovative factors, and funding of the supply-side of housing in Kenya and also the moderating effect of the major stakeholders. Using an explanatory form of approach in research design a survey was conducted using questionnaires to collect data from a random sample of 212 branches in Nairobi of financial institutions drawn from a population of 43 commercial banks, 9 deposit-taking MFIs and three major financiers of housing. Factor analysis, correlation analysis and ordinal logit regression were used to determine the relationships. A negative relationship between economic factors and funding of housing was found, while innovative financing and technological factors were found to have no influence. A positive moderating effect of stakeholders on the relationships between both economic factors, and innovative financing and technological factors on one side, and funding of housing was established. The implication being that economic factors play a bigger role in impacting housing and a stable economy is conducive in encouraging investments in housing, with government acting more as an enabler. Innovative financing and technology act as facilitators only.

Critical factors affecting affordability of mortgage housing in Kenya

This study investigated factors affecting affordability in the mortgage housing sector in Kenya. Housing affordability is a major problem experienced by urban households in Africa. According to the African Development Bank (The middle of the pyramid: Dynamics of the middle class in Africa, market brief, 2011), only three per cent of the entire African population can afford a mortgage. In Kenya, the Centre for Affordable Housing Finance in Africa has estimated that only eleven per cent of urban households earn enough to support a mortgage. Attempts were made in this study to develop an empirical model to reveal the underlying factors affecting housing affordability in Kenya. Applying a multiple regression approach, the model identified that affordability of mortgage housing in Kenya is significantly driven by clusters of factors related to the households’ social-economic factors, property attributes, loan characteristics and the macroeconomic environment. Specifically, the interest on mortgage, number of households’ dependents, loan-to-value ratio, type of mortgage instrument, number of income earners in a household, real gross domestic product per capita and size of household are the critical factors affecting affordability with the greatest contribution to the affordability problems of households in the mortgage housing sector in Kenya.

CONSTRUCTION COST AND THE GROWTH IN SUPPLY OF REAL ESTATE HOUSING IN KENYA

Purpose: The main purpose of this study was to establish the effects of construction cost on the growth in supply of real estate housing in Kenya. Methodology: The study adopted a descriptive research design. The target population was 78 registered real estate companies in Kenya. The sample size was therefore 39 registered real estate companies in Kenya. Primary data was collected through the administration of the questionnairesResults: The study found that finance cost, cost of building materials, cost of land and tax cost have a statistical and negative influence on the growth of supply of real estate housing. The study also concludes that increase in growth of real estate market despite the high interest rate could owe to the price inelastic demand for housing owing to economic disparity in the country. While low income earners, who are majority, are pushed away to less glossy and crowded homes where survival supersedes luxury, the upper middle income purchase of housing units is on the upward spiral.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommended that the government should lower interest expenses so as to encourage the increase in supply of affordable real estate housing. The bank should also lower their interest rates so that the real estate firms can be able to increase the supply of housing. The study also recommends that investors should consider investing in the real estate market despite the erratic interest rates.

Economic Factors Influence on Funding of the Supply-Side of Housing in Kenya: Case Study Nairobi

Housing plays a very important role in the social economic development of any nation. One set of factors that impacts on the funding of the supply-side of housing are economic factors comprising market forces, cost of inputs, the macro economy and the cost of funding. This paper sets to establish the relationship between economic factors and funding of the supply-side of housing in Kenya and also the effect of the major stakeholders on such a relationship if it exists. Using an explanatory form of approach in research design a survey was conducted where primary data was collected by self-administered questionnaires from a random sample of 212 branches in Nairobi of financial institutions drawn from a population of 43 commercial banks, 9 deposit-taking MFIs and three major financiers of housing development. Factor analysis, correlation analysis and ordinal logit regression were used to determine the relationship between funding of housing and economic factors. Results indicated a negative relationship between economic factors and funding of housing development. It was also established that there exists a positive moderating effect of stakeholders on the relationship between economic factors and funding of housing development. The implication being the government and policy makers should ensure that interest rates and inflation rates are kept at a level that will encourage investments in housing, with the government acting then more as an enabler.

Women and Housing in the City of Nairobi: Constraints and Opportunities

This paper examines women and housing in Kenya’s urban areas. It specifically addresses the constraints and opportunities that, if explored, could enhance women’s chances of accessing owner-occupied housing in the city of Nairobi. Primary data was collected through questionnaires. The questionnaires targeted two groups of women, namely renters and owner-occupiers. A total of 90 women were interviewed, comprising 45 renters and 45 owner-occupiers. Simple descriptive statistics and Chi-square analysis were performed on the data. The findings of the study showed that women faced constraints of a financial (41.2%), institutional (36.6%), cultural (18.9%) and occupational (3.3%) nature in their efforts to secure their own housing. The study demonstrates that the best opportunities for women to acquire house ownership were through self-help groups, cooperative societies, and women’s finance trusts. The study recommends that the government, NGOs, and other stakeholders in the housing sector support and initiate programmes and activities aimed at increasing women’s access to house ownership, especially in an urban setting such as Nairobi City where the majority of women live in a situation of insecure housing tenancy. Keywords : Housing, Women East African Journal of Sciences Vol. 2 (2) 2008: pp. 170-175

‘Shauri ya Sera Kali’: the colonial regime of urban housing in Kenya to 1939

ABSTRACTThe social relationships of housing tenure shape urban life. One of the most peculiar tenure regimes emerged in the towns of East and Central Africa during the colonial period. In accordance with the colonial policy of trusteeship, employers and municipalities were together responsible for housing all permanently employed Africans, who constituted the majority in most urban centres. Contemporaries noted that employers and municipalities commonly failed to do their job, a judgement that historians have endorsed. In fact, their contribution varied greatly from place to place and, though generally insufficient, was still substantial. This paternalistic tenure regime created dependency and open-ended commitments that could not be met.

From trusteeship to development: how class and gender complicated Kenya's housing policy, 1939–1963

Colonial rule required the control of territory, nowhere more than in cities. In the early twentieth century, colonial policy in Kenya and the rest of East and Southern Africa had only grudgingly accommodated Africans in urban areas. After 1939 policy changed, not only in response to poor local conditions and social unrest but also because London's new colonial development policy made a place for African workers in towns. From 1940, new housing and colonial policies acknowledged the importance of the discourses of class and gender. Administrators stabilised an African working class by building better municipal housing, and then sought to fashion a middle class by promoting home ownership. They began to promote housing for families, having recognised that African women could help to make their men at home in the city, and to educate children to become good citizens. The evolution of Kenya's housing policy illuminates the characteristic pressures, calculations, and responses of colonial rule that were being played out internationally in the late colonial period.

The nature of rental housing in Kenya

The nature of rental housing in Kenya

The nature of rental housing in Kenya

Both the urban population and the number of towns in Kenya have increased enormously over the last 35 years. (However, housing production has remained far below the targets in the five-year national development plans and even further below actual demand for housing. Most of the urban population, especially low-income households, cannot afford to buy or build their own homes and, as a result, most of the housing in towns is rental housing. The rental housing sector is a complex one involving many actors. Tenants' rights are poorly respected, especially in the informal settlements that provide most of the accommodation to low-income renters. Housing and environmental standards in these settlements are extremely low. Through three case studies, this paper explores some of the issues involved and puts forward proposals for a new policy on rental housing.