Division Of Housework Research Articles

The division of housework and childcare from a dyadic perspective: Discrepancies between partners’ reports across the transition to parenthood

The division of housework and childcare from a dyadic perspective: Discrepancies between partners’ reports across the transition to parenthood

Family Planning Policy in China and the Gender Equality in Family and Labor Market

This article examines the effects of China’s Family Planning Policy (FPP) on the gender wealth gap and the division of housework within Chinese families. Initially, the study applies dependency theory to analyze the influence of the FPP on Chinese families. Firstly, we find that there was no significant gender wealth gap during the One-Child Policy (OCP) period, which indicates that the OCP indirectly reduced the economic dependence of Chinese women on their husbands by narrowing the gender wealth gap. Secondly, despite an increase in male participation in housework during the OCP, the dependency of males on females for housework and childcare remained unchanged. These factors exerted pressure on Chinese women and influenced their overall life satisfaction.

Housework sharing among older couples: explaining the gendered division of domestic labour in older age in South Korea

ABSTRACT Our study investigates the relationship between family models and housework division among older couples. Using the 2019 Korean Time Use Survey, we analysed wives’ share of housework in four family models—dual-earner, traditional (husband-breadwinner), wife-breadwinner, and retired (non-employed) couples—in which at least one partner was aged 65 or above (N = 1,564). Results show that although wives’ housework share varies across the four family models, unequal distribution of housework persists in older age, with wives shouldering over 70 per cent of the total housework regardless of the family model. Wives’ housework share in wife-breadwinner couples was significantly lower than that among dual earners. We also found that economic resources, particularly income, and gender ideology play a limited role in explaining the division of housework among older couples. However, health played a crucial role, with wives and husbands doing more housework when their partners reported poor health.

A model-based boosting approach to risk factors for physical intimate partner violence against women and girls in Mexico

The goal of this study was to identify and describe the extent to which a comprehensive set of risk factors from the ecological model are associated with physical intimate partner violence (IPV) victimization in Mexico. To achieve this goal, a structured additive probit model is applied to a dataset of 35,000 observations and 42 theoretical correlates from 10 data sources. Due to the model's high dimensionality, the boosting algorithm is used for estimating and simultaneously performing variable selection and model choice. The findings indicate that age at sexual initiation and marriage, sexual and professional autonomy, social connectedness, household overcrowding, housework division, women's political participation, and geographical space are associated with physical IPV. The findings provide evidence of risk factors that were previously unknown in Mexico or were solely based on theoretical grounds without empirical testing. Specifically, this paper makes three key contributions. First, by examining the individual and relationship levels, it was possible to identify high-risk population subgroups that are often overlooked, such as women who experienced sexual initiation during childhood and women living in overcrowded families. Second, the inclusion of community factors enabled the identification of the importance of promoting women's political participation. Finally, the introduction of several emerging indicators allowed to examine the experiences faced by women in various aspects of life, such as decision-making power, social networks, and the division of housework.

Division of Household Labor in Middle-Aged and Older Chinese: A Couple-Centered Approach.

The literature provides an incomplete picture of gender dynamics in later-life domestic work. This couple-level study examines the division of female-typed, gender-neutral, and male-typed housework among middle-aged and older Chinese couples, comparing working and non-working couples. It also explores the different relationships between education, income, and the division of housework in these two groups of couples. The findings derived from national time-use data reveal that, first, non-working couples exhibit a smaller gender gap in household labor compared to working couples, primarily because wives take on more gender-neutral tasks, while husbands assume more female-typed tasks. Second, female-typed housework exhibits the largest gender disparity, followed by gender-neutral housework. Third, educational and economic resources play distinct roles in shaping the division of household chores in the two groups. Furthermore, the time spent on paid work is a more significant factor in explaining gender differences in housework among working couples than education and income.

Multiple Dimensions of Gender Ideologies: How They Relate to Normative Judgments of the Gender Division of Parental Leave

Abstract Previous research has found that gender ideologies are multidimensional. Additionally, their influence on work–care practices depends on the context, including the life stage, presence of children, and partners’ resources, which has received less attention. This study contributes to the understanding of the conditionality of gender ideologies by examining how dimensions of gender ideologies relate to more specific normative judgments regarding the division of parental leave and testing whether the association depends on partners’ relative earnings. I draw on data from a vignette experiment implemented in the representative German GESIS Panel and apply ordinary least squares (OLS) regression models with cluster-robust standard errors to 8,185 vignette evaluations of 2,249 respondents. More egalitarian ideologies regarding the division of employment and housework and less essentialist ideologies are associated with less traditional judgments of the division of parental leave. Support for individual choice is only associated with less traditional judgments on the condition that the mother earns more.

The Gendered Division of Housework in China: Parenthood Effects and Heterogeneity Across Parenthood Stages

Research documents that the gender gap in housework is substantially larger among parents compared to couples without children. Because most evidence is from developed countries, it is unclear if a similar pattern exists in China, where couples have fewer children and the gendered division of household labor is more pronounced. Based on longitudinal survey data from the China Health and Nutrition Survey (1997–2015) and two-way person-based fixed effects models, the present study examined the effects of parenthood on spouses’ housework time and share, as well as the heterogeneity across different parenthood stages within heterosexual marriages. The findings suggest that the birth of a child widens the gendered division of housework for Chinese families by substantially increasing housework time for mothers and reducing it for fathers. This gendered division of housework is most pronounced when the youngest child is a preschooler and remains unequal in subsequent parenthood stages. Overall, the study is among the first to demonstrate that parenthood is a highly gendered process in China that widens the gender divide of housework for married couples.

Premarital cohabitation and the gendered division of household labor in China

Premarital cohabitation has been understudied in China, and its impact on marriages in the region remains largely unexplored. This study examines the implications of premarital cohabitation for gender inequalities in Chinese marriages. The author analyzes how married couples with and without the experience of premarital cohabitation compare in the amounts of time they spend doing housework, whether the differences can be attributed to social and economic factors, and to what extent the experience of cohabitation equalizes the gendered division of housework. Drawing on four waves of data (2010, 2014, 2016, and 2018) from the China Family Panel Studies, this study is one of the first to provide nationally representative evidence on the relationship between premarital cohabitation and housework in China. Propensity score weighting and linear mixed effect models were employed. In contrast to findings from Western contexts, this study finds that in China, premarital cohabitation is not associated with a smaller gender gap in housework time after accounting for factors that affect selection into cohabitation. However, premarital cohabitation was associated with a significant decrease in women's housework time among urban residents and couples married after 1995, while its effect on men's housework time was not significant. Findings from this study highlight a gendered cohabitation effect on housework hours in China and underscore the importance of contextualizing the meanings of cohabitation and housework in non-Western contexts.

Gender Equality for Whom? The Changing College Education Gradients of the Division of Paid Work and Housework Among US Couples, 1968-2019.

In response to women's changing roles in labor markets, couples have adopted varied strategies to reconcile career and family needs. Yet, most studies on the gendered division of labor focus almost exclusively on changes either in work or family domain. Doing so neglects the process through which couples negotiate and contest traditional work and family responsibilities. Studies that do examine these tradeoffs have highlighted how work-family strategies range far beyond simple traditional-egalitarian dichotomies but are limited to specific points in time or population subgroups. Using data from the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and latent-class analysis, this article provides the first population-based estimates of the couple-level tradeoffs inherent in work-family strategies in the United States, documents trends in the share of couples who fall into each of these strategies, and considers social stratification by gender and college education in these trends. Specifically, I identify seven distinct work-family strategies (traditional, neotraditional, her-second-shift, egalitarian, his-second-shift, female-breadwinner, and neither-full-time couples). Egalitarian couples experienced the fastest increase in prevalence among college-educated couples, whereas couples that lacked two full-time earners increased among less-educated couples. Still, about a quarter of all couples adopted "her-second-shift" strategies, with no variation across time, making it the modal work-family strategy among dual-earner couples. The long-run, couple-level results support the view that the gender revolution has stalled and suggest that this stall may be caused partly by strong traditional gender preferences, whereas structural resources appear to facilitate gender equality among a selected few.

Relationship satisfaction and family routines of young parents before and during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic: A latent growth curve analysis.

With the onset of the COVID-19 pandemic, parents had to reorganize their family routines under many external stressors (e.g., limited external childcare), which could have negatively affected their relationship satisfaction. This study aimed to examine the changes in relationship satisfaction of young parents from pre-pandemic times up to the second wave of the COVID-19 pandemic in Germany in December 2020 and whether these changes were different for mothers and fathers. Additionally, the role of perceived pandemic-related stress and changes in family routines was investigated. Data from 564 participants from DREAMCORONA, a sub-study of the prospective longitudinal cohort study "Dresden Study on Parenting, Work, and Mental Health" (DREAM), were analyzed. Relationship satisfaction was assessed at three measurement points (T0: pre-pandemic, i.e., August 2018-March 2020; T1: May-June 2020; T2: October-December 2020). To estimate changes in relationship satisfaction over time, Latent Growth Curve Models were calculated. Changes in family routines (i.e., changes in the division of housework and childcare from T0 to T1 as well as the availability of external childcare facilities at T1) and perceived pandemic-related stress at T1 were used as predictors. The models were adjusted for education and number of children per household. There was no significant change in relationship satisfaction over time, with no differences between mothers and fathers. The multi-group model revealed that changes in the division of housework and childcare predicted changes in relationship satisfaction in mothers, but not in fathers. For mothers, doing more housework than before the pandemic was negatively associated with changes in their relationship satisfaction over time. Additionally, reporting that their partner did more childcare than before the pandemic was positively associated with the relationship satisfaction of mothers. Our results indicate no general negative prospective association between the COVID-19 pandemic and parental relationship satisfaction over time. Nevertheless, our findings highlight the importance of the division of housework and childcare for mothers' relationship satisfaction and how pandemic-related changes in family routines alter this association.

Housework Reallocation between Genders and Generations during China’s COVID-19 Lockdowns: Patterns & Reasons

This paper examines housework reallocation during China’s stringent pandemic lockdowns in 2020, where individuals were homebound and job-free while employment status remained unchanged. Utilizing a mixed-method approach, it analyzes 1669 surveys and 100 interviews to understand changes in domestic labor patterns and the underlying reasons. The findings indicate that men increased their participation in grocery shopping but decreased in cooking, cleaning, and laundry during the lockdown. This gender-task pattern was mirrored in multi-generational households, where younger family members often took on these tasks. The reasons articulated for these shifts predominantly converged around the ‘doing gender’ theory. Women, particularly those working full-time, had more time to engage in household chores. Men, while also having more available time, predominantly focused on grocery shopping, a task that gained masculine connotations during the lockdown. Factors such as perceived differences in household labor quality, difficulty delegating housework, and reduced workload led to women’s increased involvement and specialization in domestic tasks. The study challenges the notion that economic factors are the primary drivers of gender-based division of housework. Instead, it suggests that ingrained gender norms continue to dictate domestic roles, as evidenced during the lockdown period devoid of usual economic and time pressures.

A survey on the division of housework among family members in Japan

A survey on the division of housework among family members in Japan

Gender differences in the subjective wellbeing of the older adults and the determinant factors: a case study of Nanjing.

This paper aims to examine the gendered differences in the subjective wellbeing of older adults and underlying determinant factors which contribute to these differences in China where the unique social and cultural systems, the consequent concept of filial piety and the perceptions towards different living arrangements in later life provide an excellent laboratory for studying the topic. Hierarchical linear models are employed to analyze the impacts of household structure and built environment on the subjective wellbeing of older adults based on a survey conducted in Nanjing in 2021. There are significant gender differences in the subjective wellbeing of older adults, with older women reporting higher levels of subjective wellbeing (4.95 vs.4.69). Gender differences also exist in how the built environment affects the subjective wellbeing of older adults, with a greater impact on older adult women (33.68% vs. 28.50%). Household structure impacts the subjective wellbeing of older adults through the division of housework and the company of family members. There are three major mechanisms through which gender affects the subjective wellbeing of older adults, including structural mechanisms, socio-cultural mechanisms, and physiological mechanisms. Targeted environmental interventions and urban planning policies are recommended to promote the subjective wellbeing of older adults.

Concept of housework of married women: Personal happiness, cooperation, bargaining, and the burden of generalist

With the deepening of the ideology of gender equality in Chinese society, the traditional pattern of division of housework, constructed based on traditional gender perspectives, was challenged. The attitudes of married women towards housework also changed. However, those attitudes are not independent of the influence of the time in which women live. Different ages have different political, material, and cultural elements, shaping different attitudes towards housework for women born in different generations. The earlier the generation of women, the closer the contact with traditional gender ideologies, and the more likely they become the main undertaker of housework. On the other hand, women born in the later generation make different choices under the guidance of rationality due to the convenience of obtaining information, the development of technology, and the trend of globalization.

Examining the Division of Housework among Potato Farmers in Serang Village Karangreja District Purbalingga Regency

Karangreja Sub-District is a potato-producing area. One of the producing areas is in Serang Village. Potato production in the sub-district has fluctuated due to several factors, namely fertilizers, pesticides, land area, and labour. Fertilizers and pesticides do not affect potato production. Potato farmers in Serang Village collaborate with the company so that the amount and type of fertilizers and pesticides used are the same. The land area also does not affect potato production because the land used is always the same. Labour is a factor that needs to be investigated further. This study examines the distribution of housework among potato farmers in Serang Village, Karangreja Sub-District, Purbalingga Regency. The research focuses on three aspects: 1) the distribution of productive housework, 2) the distribution of reproductive housework, and 3) the distribution of social housework. A qualitative descriptive approach is used, and the sample consists of 35 potato farmers selected through simple random sampling. Data is collected through questionnaires, observations, and document analysis. The Moser approach and work time outlay are used for data analysis. The findings reveal that productive housework, such as land preparation, planting, and harvesting, is predominantly carried out by husbands. Reproductive housework, including cooking, cleaning, and childcare, is mainly performed by wives. Social housework varies between husbands and wives, such as participation in recitation activities and farmer group meetings. The study contributes to understanding potato farmers' division of labour and housework.

Opportunity or Exploitation? A Longitudinal Dyadic Analysis of Flexible Working Arrangements and Gender Household Labor Inequality

Abstract It has been extensively debated over whether the rise of flexible working arrangements (FWAs) may be an “opportunity” for a more egalitarian gender division of household labor or reinforce the “exploitation” of women in the traditional gender division. Drawing on a linked-lives perspective, this study contributes to the literature by using longitudinal couple-level dyadic data in the UK (2010–2020) to examine how couple-level arrangements of flexible working affect within-couple inequality in time and different types of household labor. The results show that among heterosexual couples, women’s use of FWAs significantly intensifies their disproportionate share of housework and maintains their heavy childcare burden regardless of whether their husbands use FWAs. In contrast, men’s use of FWAs does not change the unequal gendered division of housework and childcare, even when their wives do not use any FWAs. These patterns of intensified gender inequalities are more pronounced in routine housework tasks (e.g., cooking, washing, and cleaning), and among the reduced hours and teleworking arrangements. Overall, rather than providing an “opportunity” for a more egalitarian division of household labor, the use of FWAs maintains or even exacerbates the “exploitation” of women under the existing traditional gender norms.

Future risk in Japanese parents raising children with special needs

This paper examines relationships in married couples raising children with special needs — children requiring medical care, from an economic point of view in the context of parental employment. There is an opinion that the burden of parents with children requiring medical care who are close to being a “handicapped child” is so heavy, that the couple’s relationship can be jeopardized. How does the parents’ employment relate to the burden of parenting and how does it affect the couple’s relationship? The research method is a survey of married couples with children throughout Japan (conducted in 2021). The questionnaire consisted of two parts: with multiple choice questions and open-ended questions. The multiple choice questions dealt with (1) family structure: number of persons in the household including number of children requiring medical care and their age, (2) parental employment, and (3) marital relationship (division of housework and childcare, communication between parents, frequency and reasons for fights). In considering how parents work, terms such as “shared responsibility” for dual-income families and “isolation” and “cooperation” for single-income families were key words in considering sustainable marital relations. The open-ended questions part shows what is necessary for the parents to maintain a sustainable relationship. In this paper we come to the conclusion that one of the reasons for troubles that the parents face is the fact that the definition of the term “children requiring medical care” is too broad. We suggested that this term should be subdivided so that administrative support could be spread widely, and that support should be tailored to the family’s lifestyle (e.g., career and other parental needs).

Are gender attitudes and gender division of housework and childcare related to fertility intentions in Kazakhstan?

Previous research has found evidence of positive associations between gender-egalitarian attitudes or more equal division of housework/childcare and short-term fertility intentions in developed countries of Europe and East Asia. This study extends the literature to the context of a developing country in the post-communist region—Kazakhstan, which has progressed well in public gender equality but may not have developed private gender equality to the same extent as more developed countries. The study explores how (1) gender attitudes, (2) gender behaviour (housework and childcare division), and (3) consistency between gender attitudes and gender behaviour are associated with fertility intentions in this country. Kazakhstan’s Generations and Gender Survey of 2020 was used for the analyses. The dependent variable was treated as an interval measure, where intentions move along a continuum of certainty. Linear regressions were employed to test the hypotheses. The results show that gender-egalitarian attitudes were negatively associated with short-term fertility intentions for women with two and more children. Likewise, a more equal division of housework was negatively associated with short-term fertility intentions for both women and men, whereas more equal sharing of childcare was negatively associated with men’s fertility intentions. Also, in contrast to studies in more developed contexts, an egalitarian match of gender attitudes and behaviour (either housework or childcare) was negatively associated with short-term childbearing intentions for both women and men. Overall, greater gender equality in the family has a negative relationship with short-term fertility intentions in Kazakhstan. The study provides new and compelling evidence about the relationship between gender equality and fertility in a context that has not previously been studied.

Gendered Division of Housework in Slovak Couples: Life Course and Other Factors

The paper examines factors that explain the allocation of time and the gendered division of routine, non-routine and care activities in Slovak households. It departs from the extant literature in three notable respects. First, the division of household labor between partners is studied for Slovakia, a former Socialist country with a specific family and societal context, where female labor force participation evolved differently from Western market economies. Second, in conjunction with the established theories of gendering housework (the time availability, relative resources and gender ideology hypotheses), the explanation takes a life course perspective that breaks households down into five life stages by the presence and age of children. Third, the methodology considers simultaneity in the time spent on different tasks and in its division between the genders by adopting a model of seemingly unrelated regression equations. Slovak males are found to spend on average more time in paid employment and devote far fewer hours to unpaid routine housework than females do. Life cycle stages are found to be a reliable predictor especially for hours spent and the gendered division of care work. Life stages are manifested mainly in time use of women, whereas men adjust their time use only when their assistance is needed with children. Time allocation and the gendered division of routine and non-routine chores are primarily explained by income-based and education-based relative resources, whilst patterns of care work are in line with the life course rather than explained by time availability.

Work-Family Conflicts and Perceived Fairness of Housework Division in Dual-Earner Couples During COVID-19

Work-Family Conflicts and Perceived Fairness of Housework Division in Dual-Earner Couples During COVID-19