Household Washing Machines Research Articles

Scrutinizing the chemical and morphological alterations of microfibers released from household washing machines under varying temperature conditions

AbstractTo fulfill a huge demand that is arising globally due to the skyrocketing population, the textile industry is shifting toward cheaper, sturdier, enduring fabrics. Apparently, innovations are turning out to be banes instead of boons, as they are generating a lot of waste, leading to the destruction of the environment. Microfibers are one such example of an emerging environmental contaminant with several irreversible, health, and ecosystem repercussions. This study deals with the effects of temperature on the generation of microfibrils from washing machines. Three different temperatures ranging from lower to higher were considered. The net weight of microfibers released from higher temperatures was found to be 1132.5 ± 41.3 mg/20 L using gravimetric analysis. The fibers released from the higher temperature, that is, 60°C, were 2.7 and 1.6 times higher than those released from colder temperatures, 30 and 40°C, respectively. The length and diameter of these microfibers were in the microplastic size range. The polyester fiber was found to be released in higher amounts after identification with Fourier transform infrared and Raman spectroscopy. The results of this study can help consumers implement sustainable behavior and regulations to lessen the release of microfibers from washing household textiles.

A Baseline Study of Bacterial Pathogens in Greywater Samples in Jordan Using Ribotyping

As Jordan advances in an attempt to promote greywater reuse, it is important to investigate the composition of bacteria in these new sources. To evaluate the presence of enteric pathogens in greywater, a pilot study investigating enteric pathogens in household washing machines and kitchen sink effluents from residential premises was conducted. In the culture-dependent method, bacteria were identified after using Sanger sequencing of 16S rRNA. Bacteria in the phylum Proteobacteria have been found to be the most abundant phyla, which may indicate that they play an important environmental role and might be representative of adaptation to different environments. Klebsiella sp. and Pseudomonas sp. were the two major genera found in this study and accounted for 78.57% of the total isolates. This is the first investigation of enteric pathogens in household washing machines and kitchen sink effluents in Jordan. To my knowledge, no study has identified the microbial hazards associated with greywater reuse in Jordan yet. Additional research with more adequate methodology is needed to assist our findings.

Ceramic membranes as a potential high-performance alternative to microplastic filters for household washing machines

The development of effective, commercially available microplastic filters has become more important due to the steady increase in microplastic emissions from laundry washing cycles and the stringent regulations enforced in many countries. In this present study, commercially available microplastic filters and alternative membranes were thoroughly investigated with real laundry wastewater based on their microplastic filterability and organic contaminant retention. The microplastic filterability of each filter and membrane was assessed using a fluid imaging microscopy device, known as FlowCam, which is recognized for its rapid and realistic quantification. As a result, commercially available microplastic filters revealed a poor microplastic filtering performance, with a removal efficiency of only 19.7–24.8%, with no retention of organic contaminants. A subsequent systematic comparison of polymeric and ceramic membranes with smaller pores was thus conducted to explore their potential as effective alternative microplastic filters for household washing machines. While both membranes effectively retained microplastic fibers and organic contaminants, the ceramic membrane exhibited lower susceptibly to fouling due to its relatively hydrophobic surface. Additionally, it also removed a significant proportion of hydrophobic compounds from real laundry wastewater, thereby improving its organic retention. Further research into the convenient cleaning, long-term sustainability, and practical design of mountable ceramic membranes is necessary before their widespread adoption as external washing machine filters.

Bacterial Contamination in the Different Parts of Household Washing Machine: New Insights from Chengdu, Western China.

The moist and warm environment in the household washing machine provides ideal living conditions for the growth and survival of various microorganisms. However, the biodiversity of bacterial community in the different parts of washing machine from Chinese households has not been clarified. In this study, we assessed the bacterial communities in sealing strip, detergent drawer, inner drum, water filter and greywater of ten domestic washing machines quantitatively and qualitatively in Chengdu, southwestern China. The microbial cultivation results indicated that the washing machines from Chengdu had a severe microbial contamination reflected by large counts on bacteria, fungi and coliform. Furthermore, the sequencing data showed that the different parts displayed distinctive bacterial compositions. At the level of genus, the anaerobic bacteria of Caproiciproducens and Acidipropionibacterium were predominant in sealing strip. Barnesiella, Shinella and Sellimonas were detected as the characteristic bacteria in detergent drawer. The pathogens of Luteibacter and Corynebacterium at the genus level were the dominant bacteria in inner drum and water filter, respectively. The genera of Azospira, Roseococcus, Elstera and Aquicella, which belonged to the pathogenic phylum of Proteobacteria, were identified as bioindicators for the greywater. Gene function analysis on the sequencing data illustrated that the bacteria from washing machines were potentially associated with bacterial infectious diseases and antimicrobial resistance. This study shows the bacterial diversity in the different parts of washing machines, providing new clues for bacterial contamination in washing machines from Chinese households.

Metabarcoding Analysis of Microorganisms Inside Household Washing Machines in Shanghai, China.

Washing machines are one of the tools that bring great convenience to people's daily lives. However, washing machines that have been used for a long time often develop issues such as odor and mold, which can pose health hazards to consumers. There exists a conspicuous gap in our understanding of the microorganisms that inhabit the inner workings of washing machines. In this study, samples were collected from 22 washing machines in Shanghai, China, including both water eluted from different parts of washing machines and biofilms. Quantitative qualitative analysis was performed using fluorescence PCR quantification, and microbial communities were characterized by high-throughput sequencing (HTS). This showed that the microbial communities in all samples were predominantly composed of bacteria. HTS results showed that in the eluted water samples, the bacteria mainly included Pseudomonas, Enhydrobacter, Brevibacterium, and Acinetobacter. Conversely, in the biofilm samples, Enhydrobacter and Brevibacterium were the predominant bacterial microorganisms. Correlation analysis results revealed that microbial colonies in washing machines were significantly correlated with years of use and the type of detergent used to clean the washing machine. As numerous pathogenic microorganisms can be observed in the results, effective preventive measures and future research are essential to mitigate these health problems and ensure the continued safe use of these household appliances.

Evaluation of building washing machines as an extreme environment for potentially pathogenic fungi

Washing machines are commonly used in households and are considered indispensable appliances for maintaining cleanliness and hygiene. Environmental conditions within household washing machines are ideal for fungal colonization, which may pose risks to human health and contribute to sick building syndrome. This study aimed to investigate the fungal species contamination in the building washing machines. A total of 50 building washing machines were swab-sampled at three locations: the detergent drawer, the inner and outer parts of the rubber door seal. The housekeeping conditions of these appliances were assessed through a questionnaire. The isolated fungi were identified using standard mycological diagnostic procedures and molecular analysis based on the ITS1/ITS4 and β-tubulin gene regions. The possibility of fungal agents transferring from contaminated washing machines to autoclaved clothes during laundry cycles was investigated. Fungi were detected in 82% of the sampled appliances, with the inner rubber door seal being the most frequently colonized area. Using conventional and molecular techniques, we identified 122 fungal isolates, encompassing 17 diverse genera of molds, yeast-like, and yeast fungi. The mold fungi included 14 genera of hyaline and black genus. Among these, the most frequently identified genera of hyaline and black fungi were Aspergillus (27.7%), and Cladosporium (10.7%), respectively. This study demonstrates that building washing machines may serve as suitable ecological niches for fungal growth and transmission. Therefore, regular cleaning and disinfection of these devices are necessary.

Tekrarlı Yıkamaların ve Yapısal Parametrelerin Japon Tüketicilerin Havlu Kumaş Tercihine Etkisi ve Türk Tüketicilerle Karşılaştırılması

The objective of this research is to determine the effects of weft yarn count, weft density and repeated laundering effects on terry fabric preference of Japanese participants and to compare with the preferences of Turkish participants. In addition, the terry fabric samples are evaluated by Japanese panelists in order to determine the importance of characteristics related to preference. Terry samples woven with nine different constructions are subjected to 5, 10, 20 and 40 washing cycles in a household washing machine before subjective evaluations. The subjective evaluations are performed in two steps with a total of 40 Japanese volunteers consisting 20 men and 20 women at the ages of 18-25 years. Both Japanese and Turkish participants preferred terry fabric samples woven with finer weft yarns at a higher rate. The preference rate for terry fabrics decreased with increasing washings cycles among the participants of both countries. In addition, the most important characteristics related to preference of Japanese participants has been revealed.

Electrochemical Cell for in-Situ Synthesis of Hydrogen Peroxide in Household Washing Machines

Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is used as bleaching agent in household appliances like washing machines. For the bleaching of laundry with H2O2, an alkaline environment is required in the washing machine, which is ensured by the use of an heavy-duty detergent. In powdered heavy-duty detergents for washing machines, H2O2 is provided in form of sodium percarbonate, which releases H2O2 as soon as it is dissolved in water. As long-term stability of H2O2 in liquids requires acidic environment, no sufficient amount of H2O2 based bleach can be stored in liquid heavy-duty detergents, resulting in a lower bleaching efficiency for laundry cleaning. However, liquid heavy-duty detergents can be dosed fully automatically in washing machines, which is convenient for the user and can reduce the detergent consumption by optimizing dosing amount [1]. To take advantage of a fully automatic dosing system and at the same time obtain an effective heavy-duty detergent with bleach capability, an additional in-situ bleach source is required. An attractive route for the in-situ production of H2O2 is the electrochemical reduction of oxygen (O2) at a carbon-based cathode in a flow cell. The use of a gas diffusion electrode (GDE) results in higher production rates by directly supplying gaseous O2 to the reaction site compared to a submerged cathode where O2 is dissolved in the electrolyte [2,3]. As evidenced by the lack of literature, this kind of a specific application-related flow cell design for the use in a washing machine has not yet been developed.Therefore, a compact and simple electrochemical flow cell was developed that can provide sufficient H2O2 quantities within the time scale of a washing cycle and can be installed in a washing machine. The novel cell consists of an electrolyte reservoir, which is integrated within the cell and is separated from the dimensionally stable anode (DSA) by a divided wall. The expanded metal design of the DSA allows a zero gap arrangement by allowing the separator to lie directly on the anode. Between separator and carbon-based GDE, the electrolyte can be pumped in a circuit via the reservoir. A three-way valve allows the electrolyte accumulated with H2O2 to be discharged to the washing machine. The GDE is supplied with atmospheric O2 from the non-anode-facing side. During operation, the cell is first filled with electrolyte via the filling hole. As soon as the anode chamber (between the anode and the divided wall) is completely filled, the liquid can flow over the divided wall and fill the reservoir. Subsequently, the circulation pump and the air supply of the GDE are started and the current is applied. During electrolysis, the H2O2 is produced in the GDE and accumulates in the circulated electrolyte. The divided wall and the separator prevent the direct oxidation of H2O2 at the anode. The O2 produced at the anode can escape via the gas vent. After a sufficient amount of H2O2 has been generated in the electrolyte, electrolysis is stopped and the H2O2-solution is pumped into the drum of the washing machine via the 3-way valve.The transient H2O2 faradaic efficiency and energy consumption were compared to literature data. The combination of in-situ H2O2 production with liquid heavy-duty detergent was compared to a solid heavy-duty detergent using a standard soiled cotton textiles test.[1] Smulders, E. (2001), Laundry Detergents, Wiley-VCH; 1. Edition.[2] Pérez, J. F., et al. (2016), Electroch. Com. 71, 65–68.[3] Muddemann, T., et al. (2021), Proc. 9, 1482. Figure 1

Sustainable Filtering Systems to Reduce Microfiber Emissions from Textiles during Household Laundering.

During laundering, synthetic textiles (polyester, polyamide, etc.) can release small fiber debris with a length of <5 mm. These are a type of microplastics (MPs), usually referred to as microfibers (MFs), which are considered high-concern pollutants due to their continuous and cumulative entrance into the environment. Currently, as far as we know, there are no feasible alternatives to remove them. In this work, four new and sustainable filtering systems are proposed to retain the MFs emitted from domestic washing machines. The filters contain a replaceable cartridge partially filled with recycled low-density polyethylene pellets. The four designed filtering systems of different sizes were tested in a household washing machine determining the retention efficiency of the MFs after several washing cycles. It was found that all four assessed filter arrangements have a good performance for retaining MFs from the washers' effluents. Filter F1 (diameter of 4 cm and a height of 30 cm) started retaining more than 50% of the MFs, at the 10th washing cycle, the retention climbed to 66%, while in the 20th washing cycle, its retention was greater than 80%. MFs retention was higher for filter F2 (diameter of 6.3 cm and a height of 41 cm), achieving a performance greater than 90% in the 20th washing cycle. Filter F3 was arranged by turning the F1 model flow upside down and the retention efficiency is higher compared with filter F1 values, reaching a retention efficiency of almost 100% in the 15th washing cycle. Finally, filter F4 arrangement was developed using the existing washing machine filter, obtaining better performance than the F1 and F2 filters, reaching efficiencies higher than 90% at the 20th washing cycle. In summary, depending on the arrangement, the microfiber retention efficiency was estimated between 52% and 86% in the 1st washing cycle and up to 83% to 99% in the 20th. Additionally, all arrangements demonstrated that the cartridges may last for more than 30 washing cycles before needing to be replaced.

Potential of ultrasonics for energy saving in the household washing process

In the past few years, small household devices have appeared on the market for ultrasonic cleaning of textiles. In this study, the focus is on devices that can be immersed in a water tub for cleaning textiles by ultrasonics. These new devices were tested to see if they presented an opportunity to save electrical energy. Cleanliness levels were judged by comparison to conventional programs in household washing machines. The two devices tested demonstrated a higher effect than soaking without ultrasonics but a lower effect than any wash program. To get a better overview of what ultrasonics were capable of, additional experiments were conducted, i.e., in an ultrasonic bath for cleaning metal parts. It had a higher ultrasonic intensity and showed that there was still potential to get a higher cleaning effect for textiles at a low energy consumption level. It is concluded that, as far as household washing is concerned, ultrasonic treatments provide opportunities for the reduction of energy demand in low-temperature washing programs with a small textile load.

Jenny Carson. A Matter of Moral Justice: Black Women Laundry Workers and the Fight for Justice.

In A Matter of Moral Justice: Black Women Laundry Workers and the Fight for Justice, Jenny Carson puts Black women laundry workers and union organizers at the center of US history. Both hand and “power” laundries saw their heydays in the United States from the 1910s to the 1950s, in the years before household washing machines became the norm. “Mini-hells,” power laundries were massive factories where women sorted through disgusting dirty laundry; lifted heavy, wet piles of clothing; ironed sheets, drapery, bedding, and other hard-to-handle items; then sorted it for delivery—all in hot, humid conditions for ten or more hours per day. Although the work was extremely difficult, Black women preferred it to domestic work. The anonymity provided by the factory setting—becoming “proletarianized,” in Joe Trotter’s terminology—was better than working under white women’s microscopes. Carson tells us that the 1930s proved the pinnacle of what was a cross-race union movement. Building on the grassroots efforts of the communist Trade Union Unity League (TUUL), the National Negro Congress under A. Philip Randolph’s leadership, and a burgeoning Left-leaning, Black-oriented labor network, Charlotte Adelmond, Dollie Robinson, Jessie Taft Smith, Beatrice Shapiro Lumpkin, and Noah Walter, among others, pushed the larger labor movement to recognize the connections between race and economic exploitation and to organize purposefully to combat them. In doing so, Carson corrects the narrative that the Amalgamated Clothing Workers of America (ACWA) was “the driving force behind the unionization of New York City’s laundry workers” (6). This alone is an important contribution to the literature, but Carson’s detailed study explains how Black women worked with white men at the local and national levels; how they “pursued a civil rights agenda that included equal pay for equal work”; and how, despite its shortcomings, industrial unionism proved a better model than craft unionism for organizing laundry workers (7). By the end of the 1940s, the white men who led the ACWA opted for labor “stability,” as historians have argued about other Congress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) unions. Carson claims that that choice privileged white working-class men over the more radical organizing drives that were crucial to building cross-race alliances, bringing Black workers into the labor movement, and keeping the focus on the economic component of racism. By 1950, the very architects of those more radical, left-wing, race-focused drives, including Adelmond and other Black activists, were ousted from the ACWA.

Design and development of magneto-rheological damper for vibration attenuation in household washing machine

Design and development of magneto-rheological damper for vibration attenuation in household washing machine

A Small-scale Washing Test That Reproduces the Mechanical Forces Occurring Inside a Commercial Washing Machine.

A small-scale washing test model was proposed to reproduce the mechanical forces occurring inside a household washing machine in Japan. Washing tests were conducted using household washing machines, a tergotometer, and four types of small-scale washing test models using JIS-designated artificially soiled fabric. As a result of conducting washing tests in 10 households during winter and summer, we determined that the mechanical force of the washing machine was equivalent to 90-100 rpm agitation by a tergotometer. Similar detergency was obtained by rotating a 50 mL centrifuge tube with a tube rotator. Then, a centrifuge tube containing 35 mL of detergent solution, ten 1/4-inch stainless steel balls, and three 20 × 20 mm soiled fabrics was rotated at 50 rpm. Probability density functional theory analysis did not identify any kinetic problems, which means that the properties of the applied mechanical forces are similar to those occurring in the tergotometer and tube rotator test.

Comparison of ultrasonic devices for the pretreatment of textiles before washing and analysis of action

Up to now, when measuring the cleaning effect of ultrasound, it has generally been only possible to record combinations of different influencing variables corresponding to the parameters of Sinner’s circle. These parameters are temperature, chemistry, mechanics, and time. In order to evaluate the ultrasonic effect, a new experimental design was developed making it possible to separately measure the influence of these parameters. This approach was used to determine the cleaning of three hand-held ultrasonic devices intended for the pretreatment of stains on textiles before washing in household washing machines. For six difficult to remove stains, the contributions of soaking, friction, and ultrasound were experimentally investigated separately. The cleaning effect was measured as increased brightness. In case of all stains, the contribution of ultrasound was the maximum, followed by friction and soaking. Since it was observed that the temperature of the transducer increased during ultrasonic operation, the ultrasonic effect was further divided into an effect of temperature and ultrasound. This was done with one device and one sebum stain as an example. Analysis of the temperature influence showed that the soaking process in particular was temperature dependent, while the influence of temperature on the ultrasonic action and friction was negligible. The experiments showed that the experimental design could be used to separate the effects according to Sinner’s circle. This information enables a better understanding of the effect of devices using ultrasound and opens up new possibilities for optimizing such processes.

Genome-Based Analysis of Virulence Factors and Biofilm Formation in Novel P. aeruginosa Strains Isolated from Household Appliances.

In household washing machines, opportunistic pathogens such as Pseudomonas aeruginosa are present, which represent the household as a possible reservoir for clinical pathogens. Here, four novel P. aeruginosa strains, isolated from different sites of household appliances, were investigated regarding their biofilm formation. Only two isolates showed strong surface-adhered biofilm formation. In consequence of these phenotypic differences, we performed whole genome sequencing using Oxford Nanopore Technology together with Illumina MiSeq. Whole genome data were screened for the prevalence of 285 virulence- and biofilm-associated genes as well as for prophages. Linking biofilm phenotypes and parallelly appearing gene compositions, we assume a relevancy of the las quorum sensing system and the phage-encoded bacteriophage control infection gene bci, which was found on integrated phi297 DNA in all biofilm-forming isolates. Additionally, only the isolates revealing strong biofilm formation harbored the ϕCTX-like prophage Dobby, implicating a role of this prophage on biofilm formation. Investigations on clinically relevant pathogens within household appliances emphasize their adaptability to harsh environments, with high concentrations of detergents, providing greater insights into pathogenicity and underlying mechanisms. This in turn opens the possibility to map and characterize potentially relevant strains even before they appear as pathogens in society.

Decontamination Efficiency of Thermal, Photothermal, Microwave, and Steam Treatments for Biocontaminated Household Textiles.

With the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, textile laundering hygiene has proved to be a fundamental measure in preventing the spread of infections. The first part of our study evaluated the decontamination efficiency of various treatments (thermal, photothermal, and microwave) for bio contaminated textiles. The effects on textile decontamination of adding saturated steam into the drum of a household textile laundering machine were investigated and evaluated in the second part of our study. The results show that the thermal treatment, conducted in a convection heating chamber, provided a slight reduction in efficiency and did not ensure the complete inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus on cotton swatches. The photothermal treatment showed higher reduction efficiency on contaminated textile samples, while the microwave treatment (at 460 W for a period of 60 s) of bio contaminated cotton swatches containing higher moisture content provided satisfactory bacterial reduction efficiency (more than 7 log steps). Additionally, the treatment of textiles in the household washing machine with the injection of saturated steam into the washing drum and a mild agitation rhythm provided at least a 7 log step reduction in S. aureus. The photothermal treatment of bio contaminated cotton textiles showed promising reduction efficiency, while the microwave treatment and the treatment with saturated steam proved to be the most effective.

Influence of Hydrogen Peroxide on Disinfection and Soil Removal during Low-Temperature Household Laundry.

In the Water, Energy and Waste Directive, the European Commission provides for the use of household washing programmes with lower temperatures (30–40 °C) and lower water consumption. However, low washing temperatures and the absence of oxidising agents in the liquid detergents, and their reduced content in powder detergents, allow biofilm formation in washing machines and the development of an unpleasant odour, while the washed laundry can become a carrier of pathogenic bacteria, posing a risk to human health. The aim of the study was to determine whether the addition of hydrogen peroxide (HP) to liquid detergents in low-temperature household washing allows disinfection of the laundry without affecting the properties of the washed textiles even after several consecutive washes. Fabrics of different colours and of different raw material compositions were repeatedly washed in a household washing machine using a liquid detergent with the addition of 3% stabilised HP solution in the main wash, prewash or rinse. The results of the antimicrobial activity, soil removal activity, colour change and tensile strength confirmed the excellent disinfection activity of the 3% HP, but only if added in the main wash. Its presence did not discolour nor affect the tensile strength of the laundry, thus maintaining its overall appearance.

Automation of Seed Priming Technology for Enhanced Seed Vigour of Blackgram Seeds

Background: Seed priming technique involves soaking of seeds in priming agent to a point where germination related metabolic activities occur in the seeds followed by drying of imbibed seeds to original moisture to prevent the radical protrusion and facilitate storage of primed seed. Draining of priming agent and drying of large quantity of primed seeds is a laborious and time consuming process. The current study was aimed to standardize automation of seed priming process by utilizing house-hold top loading washing machine. Methods: The top loading washing machine referred to as Seed Priming Cabinet, contained a priming drum with provision for draining water. On completion of the soaking period, the ‘SPIN’ button was pressed by setting the duration of spin drying (1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 min.). Then the seeds were removed from the drum of priming cabinet and subjected to shade drying so as to reach the original moisture content and evaluated for seed quality parameters. Result: The blackgram seed subjected to conventional hydropriming was compared with automatic seed priming for 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 min. and observed that hydropriming and spin drying for 3 min. was found to be optimum and the per cent increase in germination recorded over control was 18.0 per cent thus suggesting that automation of seed priming technology can be recommended for enhanced seed vigour and crop productivity of blackgram.

Building a Circular Economy Model for Managing Exploitation of Household Used Devices on the Example of Washing Machine Driven by DC Motor Along with Components

Abstract In the article, the authors describe, using the example of a selected class of technical means, their concept of replacing the “classical” linear management (exploitation) model with a circular economy (CE) model. An example of an object for which the authors plan to test the feasibility of the concept presented above is a household washing machine driven by a DC motor. The description of this object included in the article considers its complexity and multiplicity of assemblies, sub-assemblies, and elements. The DC electric motor driving the washing machine was considered the most important from the point of view of the created model, especially in terms of the possibility of maintenance and repair. For such an engine, the article presents the maintenance and disposal model as elements of the concept of building a ‘circular’ business model. The authors assumed that the formal basis for such a model would be the so-called circular model. The methodology and plan of the research carried out at Super Asia washing machine company in Pakistan were introduced, and the research results were shown. With the use of these results, an attempt was made to assess the requirements that the application of the CE business model places on manufacturers of a selected class of devices, both in their manufacture, repair, sharing and dematerialization. The concept of further research is described at the end of the article.

Wash Analyses of Flexible and Wearable Printed Circuits for E-Textiles and Their Prediction of Damages

The development of specific user-based wearable smart textiles is gaining interest. The reliability and washability of e-textiles, especially electronic-based components of e-textiles, are under particular investigation nowadays. This is because e-textiles cannot be washed like normal textile products and washing electronic products is not common practice in our daily life. To adopt the e-textile products in our daily life, new standards, based on product usage, should be developed especially for flexibility and washability. The wearable motherboards are the main component for e-textile systems. They should be washing reliable and flexible for better adoption in the system. In this manuscript, flexible wearable PCBs were prepared with different conductive track widths and protected with silicone coatings. The samples were washed for 50 washing cycles in the household washing machine, and provoked damages were investigated. The PCBs were also investigated for bending tests (simulating mechanical stresses in the washing machine), and resultant damages were discussed and co-related with washing damages. The bending test was performed by bending the FPCBs at 90° over the circular rod and under the known hanging load.