Household Disposable Income Research Articles

Club convergence in regional labor productivity: how do Australian states and territories compare to the US, UK, and Canadian subnational regions?

AbstractDeveloping strategies to enhance productivity growth requires identifying leading and lagging regions, industries, and growth drivers. However, there are limited cross-country studies using subnational data. Our study goes beyond the traditional country convergence approach and estimates labor productivity convergence using Philips and Sul’s club convergence approach and subnational data from 2004 to 2020. We aim to determine whether labor productivity growth rates in Australian states and territories are equal, converging, or divergent as compared to United States, United Kingdom, and Canadian subnational regions. The results show that five Australian jurisdictions, including Western Australia and New South Wales, are in the high labor productivity group (Club 1), while the remaining three i.e., Australian Capital Territory, Victoria, and Queensland, are in the moderate growth group (Club 2). We also used fixed effects models with least squares dummy variable estimators to identify the club’s characteristics. The results show that regions with a high proportion of employees in information and communications technology, energy, mining, and resources experienced higher labor productivity growth than those with a manufacturing sector. Human capital, innovation, and household disposable income were associated with high labor productivity, whereas high old-age dependency and children-to-women ratios were associated with lower growth. These results are consistent with the macroeconomic phenomenon that economic development leads to inequality and polarization in certain regions of a country. Nonetheless, the findings are useful for decision-makers and researchers to use in benchmarking and improving regional strategies by identifying regional peers and factors that influence convergence or divergence that can be improved. The results provide insightful findings for consideration by policymakers seeking to boost labor productivity or to bridge regional gaps in productivity.

Unmet health needs during COVID-19 pandemic in Serbia

Abstract Background The COVID-19 pandemic made health care access more difficult. This study provides insight into significant individual factors associated with unmet needs in 2021 in Serbia. Methods The study is a secondary analysis of SILC data, conducted on a sample of 13,855 respondents aged 16 + (source: Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia). The outcome variable is self-reported unmet need for physician service in last 12 months (yes/no). Multivariate logistic regression is used to identify factors significantly related to unmet needs. Demographic, socioeconomic factors and health needs, which have been found to be significant for outcome in univariate logistic regression, are entered in final analysis. Results It was shown that age, marital, employment status, income and health needs were significant factors for unmet needs. Compared to 16-24 age group, aged 65+ were more likely to report unmet needs, OR = 3.5(CI = 2.1-5.6); for 45-64 years old OR = 3.4(CI = 2.1-5.3); for 25-44 OR = 2.0(CI = 1.3-3.1). Separated/divorced had higher odds for unmet needs than married ones, OR = 1.4(CI = 1.2-1.8); as well as unemployed, OR = 1.4(CI = 1.2-1.6), and retired, OR = 1.2(CI = 1.0-1.5), than employed. Those from the 1st quintile, based on equalized disposable household income, were more likely to report unmet need compared to the 5th quintile, OR = 1.8(CI = 1.5-2.1). A gradient across all quintiles was proven (for 2nd quintile OR = 1.6(CI = 1.3-1.9), for 3rd OR = 1.4(CI = 1.1-1.7), for 4th OR = 1.3(CI = 1.1-1.5)). Compared to participants with very good/good health, those who perceive own health as very poor/poor had 3 times higher odds (CI = 2.5-3.5) to report unmet need; for those with average health OR = 1.7(CI = 1.5-1.9). Suffering from chronic illness increases odds 2.2 times (CI = 1.9-2.5). Conclusions The highest probability for unmet needs was established across most vulnerable groups, which is significant for preparing for future public health crises and preventing increase in health inequalities during them. Key messages • During the pandemic,there was a higher probability of unmet health needs among the most vulnerable groups. • Strategies need to be put in place to prevent health inequalities deepening in a future crisis.

Investigating socioeconomic disparities in prescribing new diabetes medication

Abstract Background There is a concern regarding socioeconomic disparities in prescription of new medications such as SGLT-2is or GLP-1RAs in type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). This study aims to analyze prescription patterns of these medications and assess socioeconomic disparities in their initiation among individuals with T2DM with very high cardiovascular risk. Methods Individuals diagnosed with T2DM and very high cardiovascular risk were identified (N = 10,768) based on general practitioner’ electronic health record data. Socioeconomic status (SES) was based on standardized disposable household income in quintiles. The association between SES and the prescription of SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs in 2022 was investigated by logistic regression analyses, adjusting for potential confounding factors. SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs prescription patterns were examined over 2019-2022, stratified for age-groups and sex. Results We found a positive association between SES quintile 1 (referent) and quintile 4 in SGLT-2is prescription in all models (OR 1.29 95%CI:1.08-1.54 in the fully adjusted model). For prescriptions of GLP-1RAs, we found no significant differences in SES. Proportionally, men are more frequently prescribed SGLT-2is, while there are no sex disparities in GLP-1RAs prescription. Older individuals consistently receive fewer SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs prescriptions compared to other age categories. Conclusions We observed sex and age disparities but no profound socioeconomic differences in initiation of SGLT-2is and GLP-1RAs in the Netherlands. The latter may be due to guidelines’ clear indication of the eligible population (T2DM and very high cardiovascular risk) and GP education. Future development and potential disparities in initiation and maintenance should be monitored. Key messages • We found no disparities in prescribing new Type 2 diabetes medication based on socioeconomic status. • The adoption of prescribing new medication for Type 2 diabetes patients takes time.

Analysis of Influential Factors of House Prices in Shenzhen

The change of house prices in Shenzhen can reflect the trend of house price changes in China, to a certain extent. This text chose the Factor Analysis Method to Specific analyze influential factors. This text put F1 as a variable, which included Total Floor Space of Residential Buildings Sold, Permanent Population, Total Floor Space under Construction of Commodity Housing, Investment in Real Estate Development, Gross Domestic Product, Local Budgetary Revenue and Expenditure. Through analyzing the data, this text deduced that Longgang, Baoan and Nanshan districts had above average values on F1. This text put F2 as a variable, which included Per Capital Disposable Income of Permanent Households and Growth Rate of Real Estate Investment, etc. Through analyzing the data, this text deduced that Nanshan, Luohu, Futian districts had above average values on F2. This text can conclude that Nanshan, Baoan and Futian Districts had a great influence on house prices in Shenzhen.

Lost jobs, new jobs and optimal tax-transfer reforms

AbstractAutomation and globalisation imply deep changes in the labour market. An important policy issue is whether and how the tax-transfer rules should be reformed to help coping with those changes. While the prevailing response has consisted of more sophisticated designs of mean-testing and targeting, we also witness an increasing interest in policies inspired by simplicity. Using a combination of behavioural microsimulation and numerical optimization, we look for a (social welfare) optimal tax-transfer rule within a flexible class where total household disposable income is a 4th-degree polynomial in total household taxable income plus a constant. We use a model of household labour supply that makes it possible to account for equilibrium constraints and evaluate the effects of changes of the labour demand scenario. Beside the (observed) Status quo scenario, we consider two alternative stylized cases: the “Jobless” scenario and the “Polarised” scenario. We simulate and compare the social welfare attained by the current tax-transfer rules under the three scenarios and the social welfare attained by the different polynomial optimal tax-transfer rules identified in each scenario. We present results using the 2015 EU-SILC data sets for France, Germany, Italy and Luxembourg. The polynomial optimal rules are social welfare superior to the current ones in all the countries and under all the scenarios and—with the exception of Luxembourg—are close to a Universal Basic Income (or a Negative Income Tax) plus a not-too progressive tax rule (close to a Flat Tax).

Modeling tuberculosis transmission flow in China, 2010–2012

BackgroundChina has the third largest number of TB cases in the world, and the average annual floating population in China is more than 200 million, the increasing floating population across regions has a tremendous potential for spreading infectious diseases, however, the role of increasing massive floating population in tuberculosis transmission is yet unclear in China.Methods29,667 tuberculosis flow data were derived from the new smear-positive pulmonary tuberculosis cases in China. Spatial variation of TB transmission was measured by geodetector q-statistic and spatial interaction model was used to model the tuberculosis flow and the regional socioeconomic factors.ResultsTuberculosis transmission flow presented spatial heterogeneity. The Pearl River Delta in southern China and the Yangtze River Delta along China’s east coast presented as the largest destination and concentration areas of tuberculosis inflows. Socioeconomic factors were determinants of tuberculosis flow. Some impact factors showed different spatial associations with tuberculosis transmission flow. A 10% increase in per capita GDP was associated with 10.2% in 2010 or 2.1% in 2012 decrease in tuberculosis outflows from the provinces of origin, and 1.2% in 2010 or 0.5% increase in tuberculosis inflows to the destinations and 18.9% increase in intraprovincial flow in 2012. Per capita net income of rural households and per capita disposable income of urban households were positively associated with tuberculosis flows. A 10% increase in per capita net income corresponded to 14.0% in 2010 or 3.6% in 2012 increase in outflows from the origin, 44.2% in 2010 or 12.8% increase in inflows to the destinations and 47.9% increase in intraprovincial flows in 2012. Tuberculosis incidence had positive impacts on tuberculosis flows. A 10% increase in the number of tuberculosis cases corresponded to 2.2% in 2010 or 1.1% in 2012 increase in tuberculosis inflows to the destinations, 5.2% in 2010 or 2.0% in 2012 increase in outflows from the origins, 11.5% in 2010 or 2.2% in 2012 increase in intraprovincial flows.ConclusionsTuberculosis flows had clear spatial stratified heterogeneity and spatial autocorrelation, regional socio-economic characteristics had diverse and statistically significant effects on tuberculosis flows in the origin and destination, and income factor played an important role among the determinants.

Price level differences in the euro area: the case of Greece

Recent inflationary pressures have significantly affected household disposable incomes across Europe, with Greece being particularly impacted due to its low purchasing power. This study investigates the persistence and evolution of price level differences for fast-moving consumer goods in Greece compared to other euro area countries. It utilises the results of Dixon et al. (2023), who analysed price level differences across 41 product categories in ten euro area countries and found that the main factors contributing to price level differences include producer market competition, retail market structure, local costs and consumer habits. Building on these findings, we construct counterfactual prices and show that aligning Greece’s market structures and consumer behaviour patterns with the euro area average could significantly reduce prices (by 17 percentage points on average for the products with the highest share in total sales). The study also finds that although Greece has become cheaper in relative terms in recent years, it is still, on average, about 10% more expensive compared to euro area countries’ average. These results imply that there is scope for policy action, in particular, in areas that increase competition among producers, improve the structure of the retail market and enhance consumer economic literacy.

Wage subsidy in the DRC: A CGE analysis

This paper analyzes the impact of wage subsidies on lower-skilled formal workers in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). It employs a multi-sectoral, empirically-calibrated general equilibrium model to capture the economy-wide transactions between the formal and informal sectors and assess policy simulations in the DRC. The simulations, both in the short and long run, indicate that when the government provides wage subsidies to lower-skilled workers, it significantly improves the real disposable incomes of both formal and informal households. There is a general increase across formal and informal sectors in real household disposable incomes due to the wage subsidy. The results show that subsidy allocation narrows the income gap between high and low-income households, as well as between formal and informal sectors. The findings are insightful for wage policy simulations, as the wage subsidy targeting lower-skilled formal workers increases real GDP from the expenditure side by 1.19% and 3.19% in the short and long run, respectively, from the baseline economy.

Pursuit of Happiness in Consumer Society: A Study on OECD Countries and Türkiye

Understanding the relationship between societal consumption desires and happiness levels contributes to the development of economic policies aimed at enhancing welfare. Therefore, this study, which investigates the relationship between consumption and happiness, consists of two stages. In the first stage, the happiness of economic units is measured by the Happiness Index, and consumption data is represented by the ratio of household disposable income to expenditures as provided by the OECD. Granger Causality Analysis was applied to data from 30 OECD countries, including Turkey, with continuous data availability for the period 2018-2021. The findings indicate no significant causality relationship. In the second stage, the relationship between consumption desires and happiness of economic units in Turkey was investigated using simple regression analysis. The results suggest that a 1% increase in consumption leads to an approximate 0,00287 unit decrease in happiness, indicating that an increase in the propensity to consume is associated with a decline in happiness levels. Consequently, this study finds no causality between happiness and consumption in OECD countries, while in Turkey, societal consumption desires negatively impact happiness. The findings are expected to contribute depth to the existing literature.

Assessment of Income Differentiation of Different-Sized Households in Poland

The household is the basic economic unit that participates in both economic and social life. It must generate income, the level of which may change over time and vary depending on the size of the household. The aim of the research was to assess the scale of differentiation of household income in Poland in the years 2014-2021 due to their size. The study used the comparative analysis method. Secondary data on disposable income per person in the household was compared. The variation in income in particular years was examined using the classic coefficient of variation. In the years under study, in each type of household (taking into account its size), disposable income increased, with a higher growth rate recorded by larger households. In all years, the size of the farm significantly differentiated the level of disposable income of households, and this differentiation showed a decreasing trend.

Help or Hurt? The Impact of Digital Finance on the Physical Health of the Elderly in China.

Under the backdrop of global aging, the escalating number of elderly individuals in poor health poses a growing social burden and impacts economic development and social stability. A fundamental question arises as to whether the advancements of digital finance (DF) can effectively enhance the physical health of the elderly. This study aims to investigate the impact of DF on the physical health of the elderly by utilizing data from the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) conducted in 2013, 2015, and 2018. The results reveal a significant positive impact of DF on enhancing the physical health of the elderly. Furthermore, the study demonstrates that this impact is particularly pronounced among the elderly with higher educational attainment, stronger intergenerational links, and those residing in central cities. A mechanism analysis further reveals that DF contributes to improving the physical health of the elderly by augmenting household disposable income, alleviating liquidity constraints, and enhancing the utilization of medical services. These findings offer valuable insights for the future development of DF and the implementation of policies promoting healthy aging and active aging.

Assessing the role of tax‐benefit policies during the COVID‐19 pandemic: Evidence from the Andean region

AbstractThis paper aims to assess the role of tax‐benefit policies in mitigating the effects of COVID‐19 on the distribution of household disposable income in Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru. We exploit data from phone surveys collected during the pandemic combined with tax‐benefit microsimulation techniques to nowcast the distribution of household disposable income. Our results show a sharp drop in household disposable income and a dramatic increase in poverty and inequality during the second quarter of 2020. By the end of 2020, the economy recovers but poverty and inequality remain above the pre‐pandemic levels. COVID‐related policies cushion the effect of the crisis at the bottom of the distribution, and their effect on poverty and inequality largely depends on the generosity of the benefits implemented. By contrast, automatic stabilizers mitigate the impact of the income shock at the top of the distribution due to the effect of social insurance contributions and personal income tax, whereas social assistance programs in place before the pandemic fail to act as automatic stabilizers due to their design as proxy means‐tested benefits. We validate our nowcasting estimates with actual survey data from the end of 2020 and show that our results match closely poverty and inequality indicators in all three countries.

Az energiahatékonyság szerepe a jelzáloghitelek csődvalószínűségében és a tőkekövetelmények meghatározásában

Our study aims to contribute to the literature on mortgage defaults and energy efficiency of the collateral. The risk differentials of green mortgages are highly relevant from a policy perspective, especially for the determination of capital requirements that are traditionally risk-based. As a theoretical background, we describe the channels through which the energy efficiency of households can reduce the probability of default. Within this decomposition, we distinguish between the effects of disposable income, financial literacy, the effect of wealth and the effect of the real estate collateral. We analyze the effect of the increased disposable income of energy-efficient households on the probability of default of mortgage loans in Hungary, where the central bank introduced a preferential capital requirement program for green mortgage loans. The primary outcome of energy efficiency gains is savings in energy units. In our study, we present the process of determining the theoretically and measurably achievable energy savings resulting from the limiting mechanisms. Due to the changing energy prices, we will not convert the energy measurement units into currency. The primary goal of our study is to present the methodology of how the results of energy savings can be included in credit risk.

Food prices and the wages of the poor: A cost-effective addition to high-frequency food security monitoring

The affordability of nutritious food for “all people, at all times” is a critically important dimension of food security. Yet surprisingly, timely high-frequency indicators of food affordability are rarely collected in any systematic fashion despite price volatility emerging as major source of food insecurity in the 21st Century. The 2008 global food crisis prompted international agencies to invest heavily in monitoring domestic food prices in low and middle income countries (LMICs). However, food price monitoring is not sufficient for measuring changes in diet affordability; for that, one must also measure changes either in income or in an income proxy. We propose using the wages of unskilled workers as a cheap and sufficiently accurate income proxy, especially for the urban and rural non-farm poor. We first outline alternative measures of “food wage” indices, defined as wages deflated either by consumer food price indices or novel healthy diet cost indices. We then discuss the conceptual strengths and limitations of food wages. Finally, we examine patterns and trends in different types of real food wage series during well-known food price crises in Ethiopia (2008, 2011 and 2022), Sri Lanka (2022) and Myanmar (2022). In all these instances, food wages declined by 20–30%, often in the space of a few months. In Myanmar, the decline in real wages during 2022 closely matches declines in household disposable income. We strongly advocate tracking the wages of the poor as a timely, accurate and cost-effective means of monitoring food affordability for important segments of the world’s poor.

Knowledge level and health information-seeking behavior of people with diabetes in rural areas: a multicenter cross-sectional study.

There is a lack of research on the current level of diabetes knowledge and health information-seeking behaviors among patients with diabetes in rural areas of China's economically underdeveloped regions during COVID-19, as well as a lack of up-to-date evidence on glycemic control and the incidence of complications among rural patients with diabetes. To investigate the prevalence of glycemic control and complications among patients with diabetes in rural areas, to explore the current status and correlation of diabetes knowledge level and health information-seeking behavior, and to analyze the factors affecting diabetes knowledge level. From January 2022 to July 2022, we conducted a screening on diabetic complications and a questionnaire survey among 2,178 patients with diabetes in 15 county hospitals in rural areas of Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region. The patients' knowledge level and health information-seeking behavior were investigated. Spearman correlation analysis was used to assess the correlation between diabetes knowledge and health information-seeking behavior. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to test how demographic information and health information-seeking behavior influenced the level of diabetes knowledge. Of 2,178 patients with diabetes in rural areas, 1,684 (77.32%) had poor glycemic control, and the prevalence of diabetic complications was estimated to be 72.13%. Patients with diabetes had poor diabetes knowledge and health information-seeking behavior, and there is a strong positive correlation between them. Diabetes knowledge level was influenced by per capita household disposable income, occupational status, gender, age, ethnicity, family history of diabetes, insulin use, glycated hemoglobin, education level, number of complications and health information-seeking behavior. Patients with diabetes in rural areas have poor glycemic control and a high incidence of diabetic complications. Patients with diabetes in rural areas have poor knowledge and inadequate health information-seeking behavior. Systematic and standardized education should be provided to improve patients' diabetes knowledge and thus improve their self-management ability.

Evaluating the impact of minimum unit pricing (MUP) on alcohol sales after 3years of implementation in Scotland: A controlled interrupted time-series study.

On 1May 2018, Scotland introduced minimum unit pricing (MUP), a strength-based floor price below which alcohol cannot be sold, throughout all alcoholic beverages. The legislation necessitates an evaluation of its impact across a range of outcomes that will inform whether MUP will continue beyond its sixth year. We measured the impact of MUP on per-adult alcohol sales (as a proxy for consumption) after 3 years of implementation. Controlled interrupted time-series regression was used to assess the impact of MUP on alcohol sales in Scotland after 3 years of implementation, with England and Wales (EW) being the control group. In adjusted analyses, we included household disposable income, on-trade alcohol sales (in off-trade analyses) and substitution between drink categories (in drink category analyses) as covariates. Weekly data were assessed on the volume of pure alcohol sold in Scotland and EW between January 2013 and May 2021, expressed as litres of pure alcohol per adult. The impact of MUP on total (on- and off-trade combined), off-trade and on-trade alcohol sales was assessed separately. The introduction of MUP in Scotland was associated with a 3.0% (95% confidence interval = 1.8-4.2%) net reduction in total alcohol sales per adult after adjustment for the best available geographical control, disposable income and substitution. This reflects a 1.1% fall in Scotland in contrast to a 2.4% increase in EW. The reduction in total alcohol sales in Scotland was driven by reduced sales of beer, spirits, cider and perry. The reduction in total sales was due to reductions in sales of alcohol through the off-trade. There was no evidence of any change in on-trade alcohol sales. Minimum unit pricing has been effective in reducing population-level alcohol sales in Scotland in the 3 years since implementation.

Decoupling of functional and household income distribution by economic growth: new findings from analysing the three‐way growth‐equity nexus

AbstractThis study analyses the three‐way relationship between economic growth and the two aspects of income distribution, namely, functional income distribution (labour income share) and household income distribution (Gini coefficient). One contribution of such three‐way analysis is to reveal the ‘decoupling’ pattern of the growth‐equity nexus, namely decoupling between functional income distribution and household income distribution, as it finds that economic growth tends to increase labour income share but worsen household income inequality, and also to confirm the reverse relationship that that higher labour income shares and household income inequality lead to a higher rate of economic growth. We show that these findings co‐exist with the traditional belief in the literature about the directly reinforcing relationship between functional and household income distribution. These findings are consistent with skilled labour compensated by performance‐based higher wages, which is often associated with a skill‐biassed technological change. The study confirms the same three‐way relationship in both developed and developing countries, but with several different determinants and different trends in the key variables. Given this nuanced trade‐off between economic growth and household income equality, coupled with no such trade‐off between growth and labour income share, a sensible policy prescription may be a combination of growth‐enhancing policy of increasing pre‐tax labour income share and a separate redistribution policy to decrease disposable household income inequality, which can mitigate income inequality without harming economic growth.

The effects of CPI increase on disposable income: an analysis for Spain by CGE

ABSTRACT Spain is the European country where the differences between the highest and lowest incomes have increased the most in the last decade. In addition, the rise in prices would have repercussions on household disposable income, impacting income distribution and, consequently, poverty rates and inequality could even deepen the gender gap. In this context, our paper aims to analyse the impact of the increase in the Consumer Price Index (CPI) in 2022 on the disposable income of Spanish households. To do this, we employ a Computable General Equilibrium model calibrated with a Social Accounting Matrix disaggregated by income deciles and gender of the main income earner.

Trends and Preferences of Rhinoplasty Among Chinese Patients: A Social Media Analysis.

This study investigated the trends, motivations and preferences of rhinoplasty in China. Data on rhinoplasty were collected from Xiaohongshu and analyzed for trends. Text analysis and word frequency statistics were performed on the notes and comments using Python modules. We obtained 1065 notes with 102,153 comments, 239,383 collections and 640,579 likes. The number of rhinoplasty-related publications increased annually, correlating with per capita disposable income of households (DI) growth (r2=0.609, P=0.041<0.05). In the Southern provinces, there was a notably higher volume of publications compared to the Northern provinces (P=0.001). Furthermore, a significant correlation was observed between publication data, population size, and the DI (r2=0.786, P<0.001). The nasal tip (3197) and nasion (1409) were the most mentioned nasal subunits. "Good-looking" (9672) and "natural" (2811) were the most used words to describe the nose shape. The "doctor" (4377), the "hospital" (2182) and "hyaluronic acid" (2106) were the most mentioned rhinoplasty procedure related vocabulary. Discussions about rhinoplasty in China are increasing, and more people express their desire for rhinoplasty on social networks, related to China's DI growth. The Southern provinces show a higher inclination toward these discussions, a trend that correlates with our findings of a positive association between NOPs and both DI and population size. Netizens pay more attention to the shape of nasal tip and nasion, and prefer the good-looking and natural appearance. Most people consider autologous cartilage or hyaluronic acid injection for rhinoplasty. Doctors are the primary consideration for patients. This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266 .

COVID-19 vaccine uptake in Skåne county, Sweden, in relation to individual-level and area-level sociodemographic factors: a register-based cross-sectional analysis

ObjectivesBetter understanding of societal factors associated with COVID-19 vaccination can have important implications for public health policy to increase uptake.MethodsThis study investigated sociodemographic determinants of COVID-19 vaccine uptake with ≥2...