House Floor Area Research Articles

Metrics matter: An integrated approach for analyzing household electricity consumption and the potential for conservation

The residential building sector accounts for a significant portion of global energy consumption, necessitating energy-efficient building practices to mitigate climate change. The metric most used in legislation and building codes to promote energy conservation is Energy Use Intensity (EUI). The efficacy of such regulation is often taken for granted, but as this study of a representative sample of over 800 households in Israel demonstrates, energy 'efficiency' is not necessarily translated into lower total consumption. Multiple linear regression and path analysis were employed to identify significant direct and indirect factors shaping electricity consumption measured for the first time by all three metrics: total consumption, per capita consumption, and EUI. Factors considered included building properties as well as occupant demographic characteristics, environmental awareness, and lifestyles. The factors found to be of greatest importance were, in descending order, house floor area, number of occupants, and building type (detached single-family or multi-family apartment). Other factors, including income, were shown to have an indirect effect. EUI was found to be an ineffective metric, because it allows greater consumption in larger apartments with the same efficiency rating for climatization as smaller but otherwise similar ones. In our sample, EUI for climatization decreased by about 0.14 kWh/m2/year for every 1 m2 increase in floor area. To address this, the research proposes implementing stricter efficiency requirements for large and detached houses based on a novel 'size-normalized EUI'. In addition, to promote behavior change in a socially equitable way the paper proposes the introduction of tiered electricity bills based on consumption levels adjusted for the number of household occupants.

Field Survey of Trunk Line Heating Gas Leaks in Commercial Broiler Houses

Highlights Producers can spend less than 30-min per house to check for trunkline leaks and should check annually or when a drastic increase in fuel usage occurs. Leaking fittings on 101 houses surveyed were not correlated with either house age or floor area and averaged 6.9% ± 0.6% per house. Leaks seemed to be more about regulator quality and installation craftsmanship with variation across farms and houses within farms. Producers should get written verification from contractors/installers that newly constructed houses are free of leaks. Rigid gas piping systems should include periodic union fittings to allow for easy repair of leaks. Abstract. A field survey was conducted on 23 farms (101 broiler houses ranging in age from new to 33 years old) in central and south Alabama to evaluate the presence of gas leaks on the high-pressure trunk line. Gas trunk lines usually run on the outside of poultry houses exposing them to temperature fluctuations that cause expansion and contraction of the rigid steel piping. Each threaded connection has the potential to leak. A soap solution in a hand sprayer was used to spray each connection and evaluate the presence of a leak through bubble formation. Leaking fittings were evaluated as percentage of total fittings to account for variation across houses. Pearson correlation matrices were used to determine correlations of house age and floor area on total number of fittings and percentage of leaking fittings. Total number of fittings ranged from 36 to 170 per house and was strongly correlated to floor area [r(99) = 0.70, p < 0.0001]. Larger floor areas require more heaters and longer piping systems. Percentage leaking fittings ranged from minimum of 0% to maximum of 32% per house and was not correlated with either house age [r(99) = 0.03, p = 0.74] or floor area [r(99) = 0.05, p = 0.65] for the houses surveyed. Leaks seemed to be more about regulator quality and installation craftsmanship with variation across farms and houses within farms. Of houses surveyed, the overall mean leaking fittings was 6.9% ± 0.6%. Poultry producers should get written verification from the gas line contractor/installer that newly constructed houses are free of leaks before operating the farm. It would be useful for poultry producers to check for leaks annually to verify system integrity and to monitor any developing leaks. Keywords: Broiler house, Gas leaks, Heating fuel, Natural gas, Propane.

A Novel Approach for Urban Road Network Maintenance Plans Using Spatial Autocorrelation Analysis and Roadside Conditions: A Case Study of Muroran City, Japan

Urban and residential roads play an integral role in the infrastructure system of a city. Although they take up a large proportion of the national road network, maintenance plans for urban roads are beset by many problems. These include difficulty in collecting enormous volumes of data, implementing analyses, and interpreting results because of complicated frameworks. Thus, this study aims to introduce an effective and reliable method of formulating a maintenance plan using integrated criteria of spatial autocorrelation analysis and roadside conditions. The results demonstrate that defective pavements are clustered in certain areas, for example, mountainous and forested areas, which indicate environmental effects. Using a mixed index as a criterion for prioritization, approximately 55% of roadside residents (represented by the total residential housing floor area) and 90% of commercial and medical facilities surrounding critical sections gained benefit from maintenance activities in the second year. Importantly, the proposed method presents the advantages of simplifying implications and quantitative outcomes that could support local agents in not only implementing but also making decisions and interpreting such decisions for the community.

A Contribution to the Study of Social Inequality in the Late Neolithic of the Central Balkans

The social inequality represents one of the major problems of the contemporary world and an important anthropological subject. The transition to agriculture is often viewed as an important turning point for the development of social inequality in (pre)history. For this reason, the study of the social inequality in the Neolithic communities is of particular importance for the understanding of the origins and the development of this phenomenon. This paper represents an empirical contribution to the study of social inequality in the Late Neolithic in the Central Balkans (5300-4500 BCE). The aim is to quanitfy and estimate the levels of inequality between households in three Late Neolithic settlements: Belovode, Pločnik, and Drenovac. In line with the current methods for the estimation of social inequality from archaeological remains, this study relies on the house floor area as a proxy for household wealth. The house floor area measurements are based on the geophysical surveys data published in the literature with around 1000 house floor area measurements available for the analysis. The Gini index is calculated for each site based in the distribution of house floor area. The results suggest that the social inequality on all three sites was relatively low, as the Gini values range from 0.18 to 0.22. These values fit well with the Gini estimates based on the previous research of the social inequality in the Neolithic and Eneolithic period in the Central Balkans. When compared to the cross-cultural variation based on the ethnographic, historical and archaeological sources from the literature, these values are low compared to other horticultural and agricultural communities. One potential explanation for such low values is that the agricultural production in the Late Neolithic of the Central Balkans was labor-limited rather than land-limited, which usually results in the low potential for social inequality, as hypothesized and shown by Bogaard et al. (2019). On the other hand, we must keep in mind that the wealth is measured by proxy which is suitable for the detection of statistical trends in cross-cultural comparisons, but may be less reliable for individual cases. Moreover, it is not certain that the individual house is the basic social unit, as it is possible that the basic social unit for a corporate group which includes extended families living in several houses. Therefore, the result which suggests low levels of social inequality should be taken as a hypothesis which needs to be tested further with other classes of evidence.

Classification of Determination the Recipients of the Program Keluarga Harapan (PKH) Using K-Nearest Neighbor Algorithm

Classification is one method of data mining techniques for classifying data by system according to predetermined rules. In this study, the algorithm used was K-Nearest Neighbor (KNN) algorithm and the data used in this study was the community data obtained from Kantor Desa Gampong Uteun Geulinggang, Dewantara, in Aceh Utara. The main focus of this study was to analyzing and applying K-NN algorithm in a web-based system to classify data on beneficiaries of the Program Keluarga Harapan (PKH) in Gampong Uteun Geulinggang, Dewantara, Aceh Utara. This study used 16 (sixteen) criterias, namely house status, floor area, floor type, gas cylinder, refrigerator, air conditioner, water heater, television, jewelry/gold (10 grams), computer/laptop, bicycle, motorcycle, car, cow, buffalo and goat. The data was classified into 3 classes, namely worthy, not unworthy and very unworthy. The results of this study with a value of k = 3, obtained a precision value of 97%, recall value of 95% and the accuracy value of 97%.

Influence of household factors on energy use in Vietnam based on path analysis

Economic growth and corresponding energy demand have been rapidly increasing in developing countries where household determinants have a remarkable influence. This study draws on the impact of household accessible factors on energy use in Vietnam which remains a new case study with rare information on energy data in the residential area. Path analysis is applied to illustrate a complex structure of how household factors with different multi-unit impacts energy use on the same scale. The direct and indirect correlations between household factors and energy use can be clarified by graphical visualization of Tree Plot Path and Correlation Matrix. The results shed light on the “influence level” of direct and indirect factors, where household size, housing floor area, and the number of air conditioning significantly affect total energy consumption in the case study. The use of cooking utensils is significantly proportional to the occupancy of people at home while non-cooking electricity consumption derives from the number of air-conditioners. By adapting to different environmental and social characteristics, this concise and modifiable model syntax shows the levels of household impacts to offer appropriate scenarios for energy-saving policies in areas with hard-to-reach statistical data such as Vietnam and other developing countries in the region.

Thermal Performance and Optimizing of Composite Trombe Wall with Temperature-Controlled DC Fan in Winter

This paper discusses an improved approach to the Trombe wall: an insulated panel is installed on the inner side, and vents are installed at the top and bottom to connect the outer and inner air layer with the interior. Direct current (DC) fans are installed in the upper vents for stable control of the air circulation. The study first analyzed the thermal performance of this composite Trombe wall, for which the heat load was 27.3% less compared to the classic Trombe wall and 32.1% less compared to the case without the Trombe wall. However, its efficiency for heating the room temperature was not high without heating. Then, we optimized the ventilation efficiency, the proportion of the Trombe wall in the room, and the type of glazing. The highest heat load savings could be achieved when the ventilation openings used high ventilation with temperature-controlled fans and the Trombe wall about 3% of the house floor area. With the use of Low-e double-glazing, we were able to save nearly 41.3% of the heat load than that with the regular single-glazing. For the composite Trombe wall, after taking into account the optimization factors, the room temperature was significantly higher, and could save nearly 52.3% of energy compared to the pre-optimization period.

Prediction of energy consumption of residential buildings in northern Cyprus using fuzzy interference system

The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential of Fuzzy Interference System (FIS) to estimate the energy consumption of various types of residential buildings in the northern part of Cyprus. It can be considered as an extension of an earlier survey by Evcil which explored the characteristics and energy behaviors of residential building stock in northern part of Cyprus.The climate zone in which the house was constructed, floor area of house, the year of construction, the type of house and the number of occupants per house was considered as input parameters and energy consumption per floor area as the output. The data obtained from 70 questionnaires were used to construct a FIS model, 67 rules were generated and 15 questionnaires were utilized for testing. The energy consumption values estimated by the proposed FIS model were in close agreement with their actual counterparts reported previously, i.e. R2 value was as 0.9884 and 0.8851 for training and testing phase, respectively. The results demonstrated that the FIS model can be a powerful tool for predicting energy consumption of residential buildings.

A Panorama View of Household Energy-Related Factor Analysis and its Application in the Case Study of Vietnamese Residential Area

Energy consumption in the household sector has been rapidly increasing in Southeast Asia countries and Vietnam is no exception. Since its economic growth and corresponding energy demand become more significant, related research is expected to have many potentials to be explored, including the household energy sector. This study generalizes a detailed picture of differentiating characteristics of household energy demand and energy-related lifestyles such as household patterns, housing designs, number of stay-at-home days a week, and occupant behaviors in two case studies in Vietnam. As this is emerging for the study area, open-source databases and researches play a major role in the energy policy transition and environmental impacts. Path analysis is a recommended method for assessing the influence of various household factors on energy consumption in the residential area. The results of the regression path and correlation matrix shed light on the “influence level” of direct and indirect factors, where household size, housing floor area, and the number of air conditioning significantly affect total energy consumption in the case study. The article highlights the multi-dimensional influences of household attributes on the end-use and emerges a holistic view of energy-related factor analysis to offer appropriate proposals for the energy-saving behaviors.

Identifying post-marital residence patterns in prehistory: A phylogenetic comparative analysis of dwelling size.

Post-marital residence patterns are an important aspect of human social organization. However, identifying such patterns in prehistoric societies is challenging since they leave almost no direct traces in archaeological records. Cross-cultural researchers have attempted to identify correlates of post-marital residence through the statistical analysis of ethnographic data. Several studies have demonstrated that, in agricultural societies, large dwellings (over ca. 65 m2) are associated with matrilocality (spouse resides with or near the wife's family), whereas smaller dwellings are associated with patrilocality (spouse resides with or near the husband's family). In the present study, we tested the association between post-marital residence and dwelling size (average house floor area) using phylogenetic comparative methods and a global sample of 86 pre-industrial societies, 22 of which were matrilocal. Our analysis included the presence of agriculture, sedentism, and durability of house construction material as additional explanatory variables. The results confirm a strong association between matrilocality and dwelling size, although very large dwellings (over ca. 200 m2) were found to be associated with all types of post-marital residence. The best model combined dwelling size, post-marital residence pattern, and sedentism, the latter being the single best predictor of house size. The effect of agriculture on dwelling size becomes insignificant once the fixity of settlement is taken into account. Our results indicate that post-marital residence and house size evolve in a correlated fashion, namely that matrilocality is a predictable response to an increase in dwelling size. As such, we suggest that reliable inferences about the social organization of prehistoric societies can be made from archaeological records.

Compensation, housing situation and residents' satisfaction with the outcome of forced relocation: Evidence from urban China

Since China's housing reform in 1998, urban redevelopment and expansion driven by various stakeholders and the urbanization process have led to the forced relocation of urban residents on a massive scale. Forced relocation in China and other countries is generally associated with negative residential outcomes, although in some situations residents may be able to employ certain strategies to cushion its effects. However, few empirical studies have unraveled the nature of forced relocation from the perspective of compensation, particularly in the context of urban China. Using data from the 2013 China Household Finance Survey (CHFS), this study examined to what extent and in what ways compensation can influence relocatees' housing situations and their satisfaction with the outcome of their forced relocation. The results indicate that the current housing situations of relocatees are not necessarily worse than those of people who have not undergone forced relocation, especially when the forced relocation occurred more than three years previously. Meanwhile, substantial amounts of compensation can increase relocatees' level of satisfaction. The results also indicate that housing situations (including the housing floor area and self-estimated commercial value) are important pathways through which compensation can have positive effects on residential satisfaction. Our findings reveal the multifaceted nature of “forced” relocation: It is not necessarily negative, depending on residents' bargaining power for compensation and their housing strategies after relocation, and its influence should be understood as a dynamic process with a time sequence.

Estimated electricity bill savings for residential solar photovoltaic system owners: Are they accurate enough?

Techno-economic models are widely used to estimate electricity bill savings attributable to residential solar photovoltaic systems. However, there are not many studies that examine whether estimated savings are actually realized or not. The objective of the study is to compare estimated savings with actual savings using statistical and econometric approaches of data analysis. Based on a sample of solar adopters located in the United States of America, this study finds that actual savings are on average 20% higher than estimated savings, but they are also relatively more spread out than estimated savings. One possible explanation for a lower estimated savings is the inability of models to fully capture favorable changes in household habits, the electric rate structure, and weather. Factors that are correlated with higher estimated savings are more technical (photovoltaic size-to-load ratio, floor area, and age of house) and do not necessarily matter for actual savings. Higher initial electricity bills are positively correlated with higher actual savings on average, but not with estimated savings. There is some room for making solar estimate models more customizable, indicating best and worst case scenarios depending on changes in household habits and exogenous factors. Finally, for the sample of solar adopters in this study, customers’ perception on savings is fairly correct in reflecting the deviation between actual and estimated savings.

Exploring Health Effects of Terrorism: A Multi-Level Analysis for Turkey

Terrorism has the potential to affect population health through various pathways. Since the literature mostly analyzes tangible economic costs, there is dearth of evidence on health effects of terrorism. In an effort to address that gap, this article explores the relationship between terrorism and health satisfaction of Turkish citizens by combining province-level and individual-level data sets. In order to quantify determinants of health satisfaction, a multi-level modeling framework is employed. Empirical analysis suggests that individuals with higher exposure to terrorism are more likely to report lower health satisfaction in Turkey. Health satisfaction of individuals is significantly and positively correlated with individual-level covariates such as education level, marital status, employment status, household income, housing floor area per person, interest in health issues and becoming a parent within the past year. Age, being female and utilization of health services display negative associations with health satisfaction of individuals. Finally, province level GDP per capita and schooling ratio exhibit significantly positive associations with individual health satisfaction in Turkey.

Land, urban form, and politics: A study on Dubai's housing landscape and rental affordability

There is a general perception that Dubai is built for the well-off. The construction of mega developments feeds a longstanding narrative that Dubai is solely a luxurious place. This study assesses this portrayal of Dubai and explores Dubai's residential landscape in terms of morphology and affordability. In particular, we ask: What are the different housing patterns prevailing in Dubai's built landscape? What are the major driving factors that influenced Dubai's housing transformation? How affordable is Dubai to its residents? Does Dubai's built landscape accommodate a large spectrum of income classes?The study argues that to fully assess the affordability of a city's housing, it's necessary to understand its spatial forms, morphogenesis, and the forces that shaped these patterns. Taking Dubai as a case, the study uses geospatial mapping to reveal nine distinct residential patterns in the city's history. The identified patterns are presented under six thematic periods stretching from 1900 to 2016 to highlight the contributing forces that shaped Dubai's housing landscape. Results expand the terms of discussions of affordable housing issues to address concerns related to authoritarian land use control and its impact on housing forms. Findings reveal that Dubai's land use policy creates spatial and housing affordability challenges. The state housing policy of providing large plots and exclusive suburbs for natives and the government's partnership with the private sector to brand Dubai through projects for the well-off have created a formidable housing challenge for the middle class. One major challenge is the lack of sufficient affordable housing units for the middle-class population; rental figures for this group are at crisis point. Only 23% of total housing units, which corresponds to a mere 7% of the total housing floor area in Dubai, are affordable for this group. To eradicate these ills of housing affordability, the planning profession in Dubai must derive practices from a number of internationally recognized planning and rental control policies.

Building Robust Housing Sector Policy Using the Ecological Footprint

The vulnerability of the urban residential sector is likely to increase without the mitigation of growing household Ecological Footprints (energy demand, CO2 emissions, and demand for land). Analysis comparing the effectiveness and robustness of policy to mitigate the size of the housing Ecological Footprint has been limited. Here, we investigate three mitigation options: (1) reducing housing floor area, (2) improving the building envelope efficiency, and (3) reducing the carbon intensity of the electricity sector. We model the urban residential Ecological Footprint for a sub-national case study in Australia but analyse the results in the global context. We find that all three mitigation options reduce the Ecological Footprint. The success of policy to reduce household energy demand and land requirements is somewhat dependent on uncertain trajectories of future global population, affluence, and technological progress (together, global uncertainty). Carbon emissions reductions, however, are robust to such global uncertainty. By reducing the Ecological Footprint of the urban residential housing sector we see a reduction in its vulnerability to future global uncertainty, global carbon price, urban sprawl, and future energy shortages. Over the long term, such policy implementation can also be highly cost effective.

Students’ Mathematical Literacy in Solving PISA Problems Based on Keirsey Personality Theory

This research is descriptive-qualitative research. The purpose is to describe students’ mathematical literacy in solving PISA on space and shape content based on Keirsey personality theory. The subjects are four junior high school students grade eight with guardian, artisan, rational or idealist personality. Data collecting methods used test and interview. Data of Keirsey Personality test, PISA test, and interview were analysed. Profile of mathematical literacy of each subject are described as follows. In formulating, guardian subject identified mathematical aspects are formula of rectangle area and sides length; significant variables are terms/conditions in problem and formula of ever encountered question; translated into mathematical language those are measurement and arithmetic operations. In employing, he devised and implemented strategies using ease of calculation on area-subtraction principle; declared truth of result but the reason was less correct; didn’t use and switch between different representations. In interpreting, he declared result as area of house floor; declared reasonableness according measurement estimation.In formulating, artisan subject identified mathematical aspects are plane and sides length; significant variables are solution procedure on both of daily problem and ever encountered question; translated into mathematical language those are measurement, variables, and arithmetic operations as well as symbol representation. In employing, he devised and implemented strategies using two design comparison; declared truth of result without reason; used symbol representation only. In interpreting, he expressed result as floor area of house; declared reasonableness according measurement estimation.In formulating, rational subject identified mathematical aspects are scale and sides length; significant variables are solution strategy on ever encountered question; translated into mathematical language those are measurement, variable, arithmetic operation as well as symbol and graphic representation. In employing, he devised and implemented strategies using additional plane forming on area-subtraction principle; declared truth of result according calculation process; used and switched between symbol and graphic representation. In interpreting, he declared result as house area within terrace and wall; declared reasonableness according measurement estimation.In formulating, idealist subject identified mathematical aspects are sides length; significant variables are terms/condition in problem; translated into mathematical language those are measurement, variables, arithmetic operations as well as symbol and graphic representation. In employing, he devised and implemented strategies using trial and error and two design in process of finding solutions; declared truth of result according the use of two design of solution; used and switched between symbol and graphic representation. In interpreting, he declared result as floor area of house; declared reasonableness according measurement estimation.

How house size impacts on the number of furniture, appliance and tool items (FATs) in a house: An embodied energy study of New Zealand houses

Various sources show an increase in average house floor area in many developed countries including New Zealand. Obviously larger houses need more materials for their construction but there is little research on the contents of various sized houses. As part of a larger New Zealand study, an online survey of owner-occupiers from mid-February to mid-April 2015 asked about the type and number of furniture, appliance and tool items (FATs) along with the type and number of rooms in their houses. The embodied energy (EE) of FATs in each house was calculated using the input-output on the basis of cost method. The overall embodied energy for furnishing each house was then calculated and mapped with house size. The results showed the number of FATs in NZ houses is significantly different by house size but not by household size. This study also showed that together the embodied energy alone of small and large appliances makes up 51% of the total life cycle energy of FATs in a house in year 0, increasing to 59%, 60%, 62% and 62% after 25, 50, 75 and 100 years.

국가 통계에 기초한 주택부문의 에너지효율 지표 산정 연구

Energy is essential resource to modern society and is a key in determining whether or not sustainable development. In the energy consumption of buildings in Korea, the building sector accounts for 18.2% of a total energy consumption. The purpose of this study was to computed the energy efficiency indicator of residential building sector using national statistics as indicator factors for building energy policy. Energy efficiency indicator are composed of an energy consumption as numerator and an activity data from national statistics as denominator. National statistics data in this study were energy consumption statistic, GDP, population, number of household & house, number of residential building mass and floor area. This study proposed that house unit-based indicator (toe/house) and floor area unit-based indicator () were useful as the energy efficiency indicator for residential building sector. These indicators can be used as a time-series trend analysis and energy efficiency criteria. Energy intensity per house unit was 1.4toe/house in 2012 and it showed a high reduction rate of 35.1% during the analysis period. Energy intensity per floor area was in 2012 and was reduced by 55% for 1996. The graphs and charts show that the time-series trend of these energy efficiency indicator has been consistently low.

Path planning for the autonomous collection of eggs on floors

A problem in loose housing systems for laying hens is the laying of eggs on the floor; these eggs need manual collection. This job is heavy and time-consuming and automated collection is desired. For collection using a robot, a collection path is required. A novel path planning algorithm is introduced for non-uniform repetitive area coverage (NURAC) paths and evaluated based on information about floor egg distribution probability. Firstly, a spatial map was developed that describes the potential for floor eggs at each location in a poultry house. Next, paths for floor egg collection are planned with a dynamic programming approach that covers the house floor area and frequently revisits locations with a high potential on floor eggs. These paths are compared with the paths used for floor egg collection by a farmer and evaluated with help of a simulated set of floor eggs. With respect to the average time eggs are present on the floor, paths planned for a robot are compared to two collection rounds of a farmer. With respect to the structure of the path and the number of visits to locations with a high potential, the robot paths outperform the farmer. Although optimality of the path is not guaranteed, the presented results are promising for the use of a robot to collect floor eggs, and will result in a reduction of the demand for manual labour. Extending the floor egg model with feedback information could further improve the results.

In a Field of Party Walls

When Deng Xiaoping initiated market reforms in 1978, reopening the country and inviting the newest phase of foreign investment in Chinese cities, the structure and scale of these cities changed dramatically. Today, the governing process rewards the official who can most rapidly transform his or her city into guoji dadushi , a “great international city.”1 With an unprecedented release of capital,2 China has built more—more skyscrapers and high-rises, more housing and malls, more rail systems and highways—than any other country in a thirty-year period.3 In Shanghai, the traditional lilong (alleyway or lane) housing compounds are being replaced by new gated communities of luxury housing towers surrounded by landscaped parks or paved parking (Figure 1). Widened streets, elevated highways, and spiraling approach ramps to suspension bridges impose a new, vehicular, logic on the city (Figure 2). On its expanding edges, rows upon rows of repetitive housing blocks are organized by an economic logic of mass reproduction and the strict daylight standards that govern the spacing of buildings to ensure that sunlight penetrates residential spaces. Along what were once tow roads running beside canals, new shopping malls have organized their indoor public spaces according to the logic of retailing rather than that of public streets. Figure 1 Aerial view of Shanghai, 2004 (author’s photo) Figure 2 Aerial view of Puxi from Pudong, 2012. The sense of the Huangpu River in the city is now understood only from the heights of new skyscrapers (author’s photo) Developers, to ensure that each project announces itself as an icon, intentionally dissociate it from its surrounding context. Each building is a discrete object whose separation from other buildings is more important than the relation between them. Spaces between buildings are undefined and cars dominate public space. Urbanism is fragmented as identity is transferred from the city to its …