Hotspots Of Ecosystem Services Research Articles

Global mapping and evolution of persistent fronts in Large Marine Ecosystems over the past 40 years

Ocean fronts, characterized by narrow zones with sharp changes in water properties, are vital hotspots for ecosystem services and key regulators of regional and global climates. Global change is reshaping the distribution of material and energy in the ocean; however, it remains unclear how fronts have varied in the last few decades. Here, we present a global, fine-scale digital atlas of persistent fronts around Large Marine Ecosystems and demonstrate significant global increases in both their occurrence and intensity. In subtropical regions (around boundary currents and upwelling systems) and polar regions, persistent frontal occurrence and intensity are rapidly increasing, while in tropical regions, they remain stable or slightly decrease. These enhancements may be respectively related to changes in boundary currents, upwelling, and sea ice retreat. This spatially heterogeneous trend holds important implications for the redistribution of front-related ecosystem services and air-sea interactions but has not been captured by representative high-resolution climate projections models or observation-assimilated ocean models.

An integrated approach to prioritizing ecological restoration of abandoned mine lands based on cost-benefit analysis

How to increase the usable land area by adhering to environmentally friendly ecological restoration of mines with limited funds is a challenge that many cities are currently facing. Cost-benefit analysis (CBA) can provide efficient and effective restoration decisions for abandoned mine land (AML) ecological restoration with limited financial resources. Thus, this study proposes an integrated approach for coupling ecological benefits and restoration costs, including hotspots/coldspots analysis based on five ecosystem services (ESs), landscape connectivity analysis based on graph theory model, hidden costs, and project implementation costs to prioritize AML restoration. The study was conducted on 54 abandoned mine lands (AMLs) in Chaoyang city, the ecological security barrier of China's northern sand prevention belt (NSPB). The comprehensive analysis prioritized the restoration of AMLs into four levels, of which 9 mines were in priority I, where restoration was recommended as a priority, and 22 mines were in priority II, where restoration could be carried out within the affordability of funds. In addition, our model indicates areas with high ecological benefits, in which the ecological source area (7423.66 km2) and the ecosystem service hotspots area (2028.44 km2) are mostly distributed in the southwestern part of Chaoyang city, the two mountain ranges of Songling mountain and Nuruerhu mountain. This study provides scientific spatial guidance to ensure that the AMLs realizes effective restoration and management.

Identifying priority areas for conservation: using ecosystem services hotspot mapping for land-use/land-cover planning in central of Iran.

The modeling and mapping of hotspots and coldspots ecosystem services (ESs) is an essential factor in the decision-making process for ESs conservation. Moreover, spatial prioritization is a serious stage in conservation planning. In the present research, based on the InVEST software, Getis-Ord statistics (Gi*), and a set of GIS methods, we quantified and mapped the variation and overlapping among three ESs (carbon storage, soil retention, and habitat quality). Furthermore, an approach was proffered for detecting priority areas to protect multiple ecosystem services. Hotspots recognized via the Gi* statistics technique contain a higher capacity for supplying ESs than other areas. This means that protecting these areas with a bigger number of overlapped hotspots can provide more services. Results indicated that population growth accompanied by the increase in construction sites and low-yield agricultural lands in the Zayanderood dam watershed basin has resulted in ES losses. This situation is represented by increasing soil erosion, reduced carbon storage, reduced biodiversity, and fragmented habitat distribution due to land-use change. The statistically significant carbon storage, soil retention, and habitat quality hotspots with above 95% confidence level account for 21.5%, 39.3%, and 16.9% of the study area, respectively. Therefore, a clear framework was presented in this study for setting ES-based conservation priority. Decision makers and land-use planners can also combine this technique into their framework to identify and conserve ES hotspots to support their targeted ecosystem policies.

Mapping cultural ecosystem services in mountain forests using mobile phone data

The aim of the work was to determine the spatial distribution of activity in the forest on the area of the Forest Promotional Complex “Sudety Zachodnie” using mobile phone data. The study identified the sites with the highest (hot spot) and lowest (cold spot) use. Habitat, stand, demographic, topographic and spatial factors affecting the distribution of activity were also analyzed. Two approaches were applied in our research: global and local Moran’s coefficients, and a machine learning technique, Boosted Regression Trees. The results show that 11,503,320 visits to forest areas were recorded in the “Sudety Zachodnie” in 2019. The most popular season for activities was winter, and the least popular was spring. Using global and local Moran’s I coefficients, three small hot clusters of activity and one large cold cluster were identified. Locations with high values with similar neighbours (hot-spots) were most often visited forest areas, averaging almost 200,000 visits over 2019. Significantly fewer visits were recorded in cold-spots, the average number of visits to these areas was about 4,500. The value of global Moran’s I was equal to 0.54 and proved significant positive spatial autocorrelation. Results of Boosted Regression Trees modeling of visits in forest, using tree stand habitat and spatial factors accurately explained 76% of randomly selected input data. The variables that had the greatest effect on the distribution of activities were the density of hiking and biking trails and diversity of topography. The methodology presented in this article allows delineation of Cultural Ecosystem Services hot spots in forest areas based on mobile phone data. It also allows the identification of factors that may influence the distribution of visits in forests. Such data are important for managing forest areas and adapting forest management to the needs of society while maintaining ecosystem stability.

Identifying synergies and hotspots of ecosystem services for the conservation priorities in the Asian Water Tower region

Identifying synergies and hotspots of ecosystem services for the conservation priorities in the Asian Water Tower region

Optimizing Management of the Qinling–Daba Mountain Area Based on Multi-Scale Ecosystem Service Supply and Demand

Accurately identifying the supply and demand of ecosystem services at multiple scales and determining the factors that influence the supply–demand relationship are crucial for guiding the sustainable management and restoration of regional ecosystem services. In view of this, we quantified the supply and demand of five ecosystem services at multiple scales in the Qinling–Daba Mountain area based on spatial and statistical data, exploring the relationships between the supply and demand for ecosystem services at multiple scales and examining the mechanisms by which factors like natural and human activities affect the evolution of the supply and demand patterns of these services. The results show that (1) there was no risk associated with supply and demand of ESs in the Qinling–Daba Mountain area, and numerous ESs were in excess. The impact of ES supply and demand became increasingly clear as the spatial scale was increased. (2) Under multiple spatial scales, the relationship between the supply and demand of ESs will change. At the mesoscale, the relationship between ES supply and demand was the most significant, whereas at the macroscale, the relationship between ES demands was the most significant. (3) Cultivated land, grass land, and forest land are the key land use categories in regional ecosystem service hotspots, providing richer ecosystem service functions for the region. (4) Precipitation and NDVI are the main elements determining the supply of ecosystem services. While GDP and population density have a significant impact on the demand for ecosystem services, natural causes are primarily responsible for trade-offs in ecosystem services. This study aims to evaluate the supply–demand relationship and driving factors of multiple scale in the Qinling–Daba Mountains, providing a scientific basis for the sustainable management of ecosystems in the region.

Temporal–spatial dynamics of typical ecosystem services in the Chaobai River basin in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban megaregion

Human demand for ecosystem services dominates ecosystem changes and impacts the temporal–spatial patterns of ecosystem services and their trade- offs. In the process of urbanization, the supply service, regulation service, and cultural service of the ecosystem are difficult to improve in synergy in the city and its surrounding areas, which is tough for urban construction and development. This study took the Chaobai River basin located in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban megaregion in northern China as the research area. The temporal and spatial changes from 2000 to 2015 of three typical ecosystem services in the study area, including food production, water conservation, and recreation, were evaluated and analyzed through modeling. The ecosystem service hotspots, service-gain areas, and service-loss areas were identified based on spatial analysis. The dynamic change mechanism of ecosystem services was explored from the perspective of land use change and hotspot analysis. The results showed that (1) recreation and food production services showed an increasing trend, while water conservation showed a fluctuating increasing trend. (2) The service-gain area was significantly larger than the service-loss area. (3) The main land use change form in the study area during the study period was the regional conversion of cultivated land to forest land and construction land, which led to the increase in water conservation services and the reduction of food production services in the corresponding patches. However, this conversion did not affect the overall improvement of the three ecosystem services in the study area. (4) Ecosystem service hotspots have gradually changed from being single-service dominant to two co-leading services. The area of food production-recreation hotspots continued to increase, indicating synergy between them. The area of water conservation-recreation hotspots continued to decrease, indicating trade-offs between them. Different types of ecosystem services improve in synergy in the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei urban megaregion in the process of urbanization through the improvement of agricultural technology and productivity and the promotion of leisure and sightseeing agriculture. This provides an example for other cities.

Trade-Off and Synergy Relationships and Spatial Bundle Analysis of Ecosystem Services in the Qilian Mountains

Significant heterogeneity has been observed among different ecosystem services (ES). Understanding the trade-offs and synergies among ES and delineating ecological functional zones is crucial for formulating regional management policies that improve human well-being and sustainably develop and maintain ecosystems. In this study, we used the Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Trade-offs (InVEST) and Carnegie–Ames–Stanford Approach (CASA) models to evaluate the spatial distribution patterns of nine ES (food supply, raw material supply, water resource supply, water connotation, climate regulation, soil conservation, water purification, habitat quality, and entertainment tourism) in the Qilian Mountains from 2000 to 2018. We also investigated the trade-offs and synergistic relationships among ES through Spearman correlation analysis, identified ES hotspots through exploratory spatial data analysis, and identified ES bundles (ESB) using K-means clustering. Our results revealed that water purification and habitat quality remained relatively stable, while food supply, raw material supply, water resource supply, water conservation, climate regulation, soil conservation, and entertainment tourism increased by 1038.83 Yuan·ha−1, 448.21 Yuan·ha−1, 55.45 mm, 7.80 mm, 0.60 tc·ha−1, 40.01 t·ha−1 and 4.82, respectively. High-value areas for water resource supply were mainly concentrated in the high-altitude mountainous area, whereas high-value areas for soil conservation were found in the western and eastern parts of the study area. The low-value areas of water purification were primarily located in the east, while the remaining six services were highly distributed in the east and were less common in the west. Correlation analysis showed that water resource supply, water conservation, and soil conservation exhibited a synergistic relationship in the Qilian Mountains. Moreover, food supply, raw material supply, climate regulation, habitat quality, and entertainment tourism showed synergistic relationships. However, there were trade-offs between food supply and water purification as well as water resource supply, and habitat quality showed a tradeoff with water resource supply, water conservation, and soil conservation. We identified four ESB. The food supply bundle consisted mainly of farmland ecosystems, while the windbreak and sand fixation and ecological coordination bundles were dominant in the Qilian Mountains. Notably, the area of the water conservation bundle increased significantly. Our comprehensive findings on ES and ESB can provide a theoretical foundation for the formulation of ecological management policies and the sustainable development of ecosystems in the Qilian Mountains.

Finding the Green Grass in the Haystack? Integrated National Assessment of Ecosystem Services and Condition in Hungary, in Support of Conservation and Planning

Human well-being needs healthy ecosystems, providing multiple ecosystem services. Therefore, the assessment of ecosystems on large scales is a priority action. In Hungary, this work (MAES-HU) took place between 2016 and 2022. Twelve ecosystem services (ES) were mapped and assessed along with several ecosystem condition (EC) indicators. Their integrated spatial analysis aimed to identify patterns of ES multifunctionality, reveal relationships between EC and ES and delineate ES bundles. The results show outstanding multifunctionality of natural ecosystem types compared with the more artificial types, emphasizing the importance of natural areas in order to fulfil human needs. Native forests provide the most varied range of services, which underlines the importance of forest management to consider multiple services. There is a positive correlation between condition and multifunctionality in forests; areas in better condition (in terms of species composition and structure) provide more services at an outstanding level. ES bundles mainly reflect the major ecosystem types, topography and forest condition. Our analysis represents an example of synthesizing national MAES results with a combination of methods. Finding ES hotspots on a national scale and connecting them with an assessment of EC may help in finding optimal strategies to balance conservation targets and competing land uses.

Coastal Wetland Restoration Strategies Based on Ecosystem Service Changes: A Case Study of the South Bank of Hangzhou Bay

A unique variety of wetlands known as coastal wetlands that connect terrestrial and marine ecosystems is crucial to reducing and adapting to climate change as well as the advancement of human culture. However, the coastal wetland ecosystem is currently in danger as a result of the increasing intensity of human activity, and wetland restoration and reconstruction have garnered a lot of interest. The differentiated ecological restoration strategies based on ecosystem service change analysis can provide a reference for the effective management and sustainability of coastal wetland ecosystems. The InVEST model and ArcGIS were used to analyze the spatiotemporal changes in ecosystem services before and after the implementation of coastal wetland restoration policies based on remote sensing image data, meteorological and soil data, etc. The ecological restoration pattern of coastal wetlands was divided, and the corresponding ecological restoration strategies were proposed in this study. The following are the results: (1) there are still many wetlands that have been converted to non-wetlands following the implementation of the wetland restoration policy, and the ecosystem services as a whole exhibit a rising and then falling trend, with a rise from 2005 to 2015, a fall in 2015 due to the creation of Hangzhou Bay New District, and a slight improvement to 2020. Among them, the water yield increased continuously, the carbon storage fluctuated, and the habitat quality did not improve significantly. (2) The hot spots of ecosystem services were concentrated in the south and southeast of the study area, with no obvious cold spots. (3) By comprehensively analyzing the changes and spatial patterns of ecosystem services, the coastal wetlands on the south bank of Hangzhou Bay were divided into an ecological conservation zone, a green development zone, and an ecological restoration zone at the township level, and corresponding optimization strategies were proposed. The results can provide a reference for the fine-grained and differentiated management of regional ecosystem services.

Zoning for Spatial Conservation and Restoration Based on Ecosystem Services in Highly Urbanized Region: A Case Study in Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei, China

Ecosystem services are highly affected by human activities, especially in the fast-urbanizing regions. It is important that the regional development or urbanization strategy be implemented by maintaining or protecting the long-term provision ability of multiple ecosystem services. The spatial pattern of ecosystem services and zoning for spatial conservation and restoration are the preconditions of sustainable development. With the Beijing-Tianjin-Hebei (BTH) region as the research area, an approach for spatial zoning was proposed on the basis of the modeling results of key ecosystem services (water retention, soil retention, heat mitigation, and carbon storage). Our results show that the hot spots of ecosystem services are mainly in the north and the west at high altitudes and with large vegetation coverage, while the cold spots are mainly in the plain area of the southeast in the BTH region. In addition, the whole region is divided into five ecological zones: the ecological restoration zone, ecological transition zone, coastal ecological protection zone, soil and water retention zone, and ecological security shelter. Each zone has applied different strategies for ecological restoration and conservation. The results represent the spatial heterogeneity and major functions in different zones, and they can provide planning guidance for supporting the coordinated development of the BTH region.

The Trade-Offs and Synergies of Ecosystem Services in Pinus massoniana Lamb. Plantations in Guangxi, China

A scientific understanding of the synergistic and trade-off relationships among ecosystem services (ESs) is essential for maintaining the structure, function, and health of plantation forest ecosystems. This understanding facilitates effective ecosystem management practices, and helps identify the types, intensities, and spatial and temporal distribution characteristics of interactions among ESs, which is critical for regional development planning, ecological supplementation, and the maximization of economic benefits. In this study, we used correlation analysis, bivariate spatial autocorrelation, and hot spot analysis to comprehensively analyze the synergistic and trade-off relationships between ESs in Pinus massoniana (PM) plantations in Guangxi Paiyang Forest Farm from 2009 to 2018, across both time and space. The study showed that the ESs in PM plantations in Guangxi Paiyang Forest Farm maintained significant positive correlation (synergy), with a mutually reinforcing relationship among services. Notably, the regulating services shifted from weak synergy to weak trade-off relationships over time. From the bivariate spatial autocorrelation analysis, it is clear that the overall trade-off synergistic relationship among the four ESs is basically consistent with the correlation analysis results. From the distribution of multiple ES hot spots, we determined that the number of small groups that can provide three to four service hot spots in Guangxi Paiyangshan Forest Farm is greater. The spatial distribution of cold–hot spots of various ESs varied, and the distribution of cold–hot spots of supply services and regulation services of carbon sequestration and oxygen release was similar.

Assessment of Multiple Ecosystem Services and Ecological Security Pattern in Shanxi Province, China.

The ecological security pattern construction could effectively regulate ecological processes and ensure ecological functions, then rationally allocate natural resources and green infrastructure, and, finally, realize ecological security. In view of serious soil erosion, accelerated land desertification, soil pollution and habitat degradation in Shanxi Province, the spatial distribution of six key ecosystem services, including water conservation (WC), soil conservation (SC), sand fixation (SF), carbon storage (CS), net primary productivity (NPP) and habitat quality (HQ), was analyzed by using multiple models. The comprehensive ability of multiple ecosystem services in different regions was quantified by calculating multiple ecosystem services landscape index (MESLI). Combined with ecosystem services hotspots, the ecological security pattern of Shanxi Province was constructed by using the minimum cumulative resistance model. The results showed that the spatial differences in ecosystem services in Shanxi Province were obvious, which was low in the seven major basins and Fen River valley, and high in the mountains (especially Taihang and Lvliang Mountains) for WC, SC, CS, NPP and HQ, while high SF was only distributed in the northern Shanxi. The MESLI showed that the ability to provide multiple ecosystem services simultaneously was low in Shanxi Province, with the medium and low grade MESLI regions accounting for 58.61%, and only 18.07% for the high grade MESLI regions. The important protected areas and ecological sources of the ecological security pattern were concentrated in the Lvliang and Taihang Mountains, which were consistent with the key areas of ecosystem services. The ecological corridors illustrated network distribution with ecological sources as the center, the low-, medium- and high-level buffers accounted for 26.34%, 17.03% and 16.35%, respectively. The results will provide important implications for economic transformation, high-quality development and ecological sustainable development in resource-based regions worldwide.

Self-Organizing Feature Zoning and Multiple Hotspots Identification of Ecosystem Services: How to Promote Ecological Refined Management of Chengdu-Chongqing Urban Agglomeration

Reasonable ecological function zoning is conducive to balancing ecological security and social development. Previous studies of evaluation for urban ecosystem services (ESs) have great progress. However, there is a lack of integrating ES stable hotspots into urban planning and refined management. In this research, we are interested in how hotspot identification can help promote ecological refined management. To achieve this, Chengdu-Chongqing urban agglomeration (CY) was chosen as a case study. First, we employed coefficient of variation and linear regression to analyze ESs temporal and spatial evolution trend from 2000 to 2017. Then, the stable ES hotspots were identified in the time dimension, and the results were superimposed on the dominant function zoning map obtained by a self-organizing feature map (SOFM). Finally, the refined zoning results were obtained, and we added corresponding control measures and policy guidance. The results showed the following: (1) from 2000 to 2017, water conservation (WR) and biodiversity conservation (Sbio) in the study area fluctuated greatly and showed a significant improvement trend on the whole; soil erosion protection (Spro), carbon sequestration and oxygen production (CSOP) showed a degradation trend in a few areas; (2) the area with at least one kind of ES stable hotspot accounted for 35.22% in the study area, and only 0.8% covered the four kinds of ES hotspots; and (3) the two-level zoning system of CY-refined management was designed. Eighteen cells have been designed within five main functional zones: urban agglomeration zone, modern agricultural development zone, ecological farming zone, ecological transition zone, and core ecological protection zone. Overall, the research based on natural ecological zoning management can provide a decision-making basis for urban planning, policy making, and sustainable development.

Linking ecosystem services and circuit theory to identify priority conservation and restoration areas from an ecological network perspective

The Yellow River basin has been experiencing ecosystem fragmentation, conversion, and degradation. The ecological security pattern (ESP) can provide a systematic and holistic perspective for specific action planning to maintain ecosystem structural, functional stability, and its connectivity. Thus, this study focused on Sanmenxia, one of the most representative cities of the Yellow River basin, to construct an integrated ESP to provide evidence-based support for ecological conservation and restoration. We adopted four main steps, including measuring the importance of multiple ecosystem services, identifying ecological sources, constructing the ecological resistance surface, and linking the MCR model and circuit theory to identify the optimal path, optimal width, and key nodes of ecological corridors. Overall, we identified various ecological conservation and restoration priority areas in Sanmenxia, including 3593.08 km2 of ecosystem service hotspots, 28 corridors, 105 pinch points, and 73 barriers, and we highlighted multiple priority actions. This study provides an effective starting point for the future identification of ecological priorities at the regional or river basin scale.

Exploring the driving factors of trade-offs and synergies among ecological functional zones based on ecosystem service bundles

In karst mountainous area, the strong spatial heterogeneity of the natural geography and the complexity of the human activities have led to significant variability and uncertainty in the process of ecosystem services (ESs). The trade-offs/synergies of ESs and its driving forces change with space significantly, which are not only related to the natural environment but also affected by socioeconomic factors. Clarifying the spatial distribution and compositional structure of the ecological functional zone and understanding the main driving factors of the trade-offs and synergies among multiple ESs are essential for scientific management and restoration of karst ecosystems. The objective of this study was to explore the driving forces of the trade-offs/synergies for each ecosystem service bundle (ESB) and to develop differentiated ecological management strategies based on the ecological characteristics. In this study, six ESs (i.e., water yield (WY), soil conservation (SC), net primary productivity (NPP), habitat quality (HQ), recreation services (RS), and food production (FP)) were quantified in the Wujiang Basin. Based on this, the spatial distribution and land use types of the coldspots/hotspots were analyzed. Then, the K-means algorithm was used to identify the ESBs. According to the ecological structural characteristics of the ESBs, the ecological functional zones were divided. Furthermore, the trade-offs/synergies and their driving factors among the ESs in each ESB were analyzed using Pearson correlation analysis and geographical detector. The results showed that the land use types significantly affected the spatial distribution of multiple ES coldspots/hotspots. The ES hotspots were mainly concentrated in the forest areas, while the coldspots were concentrated in the urban and farmland areas. Based on the spatial distributions and ecological features of the ESBs, the Wujiang Basin was divided into food supply area, habitat transition area, cultural recreation area, and ecological balance area. There were synergistic relationships between the SC and WY and between the SC and NPP in every functional zone. Precipitation and its interactions with other factors were the main driving forces that influenced the trade-off between the WY and FP in both the food supply area and the habitat transition area. The normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) was the dominant factor that affected the spatial pattern of the trade-off between the FP and NPP in the cultural recreation area. This deeper understanding of the trade-offs/synergies in each functional zone provides a scientific basis for territorial spatial planning and ES optimization in the karst mountainous area.

Global hotspots for soil nature conservation

Soils are the foundation of all terrestrial ecosystems1. However, unlike for plants and animals, a global assessment of hotspots for soil nature conservation is still lacking2. This hampers our ability to establish natureconservation priorities for the multiple dimensions that support the soil system: from soil biodiversity to ecosystem services. Here, to identify global hotspots for soil nature conservation, we performed a global field survey that includes observations of biodiversity (archaea, bacteria, fungi, protists and invertebrates) and functions (critical for six ecosystem services) in 615 composite samples of topsoil from a standardized survey in all continents. We found that each of the different ecological dimensions of soils-that is, species richness (alpha diversity, measured as amplicon sequence variants), community dissimilarity and ecosystem services-peaked in contrasting regions of the planet, and were associated with different environmental factors. Temperate ecosystems showed the highest species richness, whereas community dissimilarity peaked in the tropics, and colder high-latitudinal ecosystems were identified as hotspots of ecosystem services. These findings highlight the complexities that are involved in simultaneously protecting multiple ecological dimensions of soil. We further show that most of these hotspots are not adequately covered by protected areas (more than 70%), and are vulnerable in the context of several scenarios of global change. Our global estimation of priorities for soil nature conservation highlights the importance of accounting for the multidimensionality of soil biodiversity and ecosystem services to conserve soils for future generations.

Ecological policies enhanced ecosystem services in the Hunshandak sandy land of China

Since 2000, the Chinese government has implemented a series of ecological restoration policies to combat ecological degradation and land desertification in drylands. However, it remains unclear whether ecosystem services (ES) in drylands have improved since then. To this end, we analyzed the long-term trends (2000–2020) of four ES (NPP, sandstorm prevention, soil retention, and water retention) and the associated drivers in the Hunshandak sandy land of Inner Mongolia by using multi-scale trend analysis. We found that: (1) all the four ES types, including NPP, soil retention, sand prevention, and water retention showed increasing trends, with Zhenglan banner and Kashiketeng banner showing the most significant growth. (2) The changes in ES showed significant spatial heterogeneity, with 54%, 18%, and 53% of the total area still being degraded for NPP, sandstorm prevention, soil retention, and water retention, respectively. The degradation hotspots of ES are mainly located in Sunit Left Banner, Sunit Right Banner, Zhengxiangbai Banner, and Duolun County. (3) Both the conversion of sandy land into grassland due to ecological policies and the improvement of climatic conditions contributed to the enhancement of ES in this region. Our results indicate that ecological restoration policies have improved ES in the Hunshandak Sandy Land, but the effects of the policies show regional unevenness. Future ecological restoration policies should pay more attention to areas with a decreasing trend of ES and to the problem of overgrazing in fragile pastoral areas.

Evaluation and tradeoff‐synergy analysis of ecosystem services in Luanhe River Basin

AbstractThe evaluation of watershed ecosystem services and the research on their trade‐offs and synergies are of great significance for the rational formulation of environmental policies. Taking Luanhe River Basin as an example, based on InVEST and CASA models, the temporal and spatial distribution characteristics of the water yield, soil conservation and carbon sequestration in 1990, 2000, 2010 and 2015 were analysed, where correlation analysis was utilized to explore the tradeoff‐ synergy relationship among various ecosystem services. And by mapping the hotspots of the ecosystem services, the spatial differences of ecological environment conditions were revealed in Luanhe River Basin. The results show that (1) from 1990 to 2015, water yield and soil conservation declined in a fluctuating manner, and carbon sequestration first decreased, then increased. The three services all showed a pattern of increasing gradually from northwest to southeast in space. (2) The relationship between the ecosystem services showed that water yield and carbon sequestration were mainly in a trade‐off relationship, while water yield and soil conservation, soil conservation and carbon sequestration were mainly in synergistic relationships. In different regions, trade‐offs and synergies changed to different degrees, showing obvious spatial heterogeneity. (3) The southeastern part of the study area was the main hotspot for ecosystem service supply. From 1990 to 2015, the areas of non‐hotspots showed a decreasing trend. Ecosystem service hotspots have expanded, and overall ecological environment has improved significantly, but ecological environment has been degraded in some areas.

The role of conserved and managed land in ecosystem service inequity

Integrating ecosystem services (ESs), i.e., the benefits humans obtain from nature, into decision making is essential for the sustainable management of resilient urban landscapes, where people and nature are interdependent. However, ES spatial assessments often leave unanswered important questions about their relationship to social systems and their implications in management. In this study, we identified ES provisioning areas in the Chicago metropolitan region that have potential to produce ESs across multiple ES-categories (i.e., ES hotspots). We also identified areas lacking this capacity (i.e., ES coldspots). We then analyzed spatial linkages to local demographics. Specifically, we: (1) modelled the distribution of ES hotspots and ES coldspots at 30-m resolution; (2) compared the proportion of total ES-hotspot and ES-coldspot land area to that of racial groups and residents living below the poverty line; and (3) determined overlap of ES hotspots and ES coldspots with conservation, managed and public open land. We found that, at regional level, ES-hotspots correlate negatively with racial minorities. We also observed that a great number of ES hotspots overlap with conserved and government-managed land, but because these land types inversely correlate with racial minorities it is likely that these cannot serve to alleviate race-based ES inequality if targeted. Therefore, we made a number of suggestions on how to circumvent this issue, including acquiring land (for conservation) in areas where racial minorities live the most, particularly targeting vacant lots and grassland within the City of Chicago to address ES inequity in the region.