Plant Biodiversity Hotspot Research Articles

The Contribution of Genetic and Genomic Tools in Diversity Conservation: The Case of Endemic Plants of Greece

The conservation of endemic plant species has come into the global spotlight, not only because of their contribution to biodiversity but also their vulnerability and high extinction risk due to environmental and anthropogenic threats. Based on these developments, it is now essential to monitor and protect these species by applying integrated conservation strategies, especially in view of climate change, which is one of the most severe threats to plants. Genetic and genomic tools provide new potential in assessing and quantifying genetic diversity and thus can be utilized to devise conservation strategies and contribute to biodiversity conservation efforts. Greece comprises a plant biodiversity hotspot in the Mediterranean Basin with a wide variety of rare, threatened, and endemic plant taxa. In this review, we examine several cases where a broad spectrum of genetic tools has been utilized so far in the diversity assessment and conservation management of Greek Endemic Plants (GEPs). Following an extensive database search, we have identified and included in our final data collection 19 studies concerning 32 GEPs for which molecular markers have been used for the determination of population genetic structure and diversity assessment, while at the same time, the research outcomes have been taken into consideration for conservation management. The limited application of genetic and genomic tools in GEP management is demonstrated, while the significance of implementing a comprehensive conservation strategy that will integrate genetic analyses and the data derived therein is also highlighted.

Challenges, successes, and recommendations for management of coastal sandplain grasslands as regional biodiversity hotspots in the northeastern United States

A high proportion of regional plant biodiversity occurs in hotspots of species richness that cover small areas created and maintained by disturbance. Sustaining plant diversity in these areas requires region‐ and habitat‐specific management of disturbance and, increasingly, habitat expansion or restoration to offset species losses. Coastal sandplain grasslands are threatened, disturbance‐controlled plant biodiversity hotspots in the northeastern United States. We formed a network of grassland managers and scientists to review the published and unpublished sandplain grassland literature. Additionally, we conducted interviews with grassland managers about management challenges and successes. Principal concerns of managers were increases in woody plant cover, losses of rare species, increased cover and variety of invasive species, and constraints on the ability to use prescribed fire. The literature review and managers' experiences together led to the following recommendations: (1) increase applications of prescribed burning and mowing during the growing season when possible; (2) expand selective removal of woody plants including herbicide use; (3) test the application of harrowing or disking to reduce woody plant density especially in places where invasive plant densities are low; and (4) increase applications of combinations of disturbances in rotations with occasional fire. At regional scales, monitoring of management effects, identification of parcels for potential grassland expansion and restoration, and increased supplies of native seeds of plant ecotypes to use for restoration ahead of climate change are badly needed. Formation of networks of managers and scientists to share information and experiences has the potential to greatly improve land management within other biodiversity hotspots.

Plant–pollinator interactions in ultramafic and non-ultramafic environments in New Caledonia

ABSTRACT Edaphic conditions operate major environmental filtering on plant assemblages and their community structure. Soils derived from ultramafic outcrops (i.e. ultramafic substrates) are characterized by high concentrations of metal and metalloid and nutrient deficiencies constraining plant growth. Due to the coupled effects of edaphic conditions and climate, tropical ultramafic substrates harbour a very particular flora. New Caledonia, one of the main plant biodiversity hotspots worldwide, owes much of its exceptional biodiversity to ultramafic substrates. While the flora of the New Caledonian ultramafic substrates is well known, its pollinating fauna remains to be described. Here, we describe plant–pollinator interactions in some ultramafic and non-ultramafic environments in New Caledonia, with a particular focus on wild alien, native and domestic bees. Wild alien bees were less diverse and less present in ultramafic environments than in non-ultramafic ones; we only recorded six interactions realised by wild alien bee species in ultramafic environments. Apis mellifera was also less present in ultramafic environments. Regarding native bees, they were equally present in both environments but less diverse in non-ultramafic environments. Our results suggest that ultramafic environments may filter alien pollinators. Due to beekeeping, Apis mellifera thrived and was the most active species in both environments. Further studies are needed to explore the diversity of interactions in ultramafic environments and to test whether metal and metalloid found in ultramafic substrates such as nickel may transfer to pollinators through plant rewards.

Qualitative Analysis Related to Palynological Characterization and Biological Evaluation of Propolis from Prespa National Park (Greece).

Propolis samples from a geographical part of northwest Greece (Prespa National Park, PNP), which is characterized as a plant endemism center and biodiversity hotspot, were characterized through pollen analysis, chemically analyzed, and biologically evaluated. The majority of the studied propolis showed typical chemical constituents (phenolic acids, flavonoids, and chalcones) of European type, while a sample of Mediterranean-type propolis (rich in diterpenes) was also identified. The palynological characterization was implemented to determine the botanical origin and to explain the chemical composition. The total phenolic content and the DPPH assay showed that the European-type propolis samples possessed strong antioxidant activity (86–91% inhibition at 200 μg/mL). Moreover, promising antibacterial activity of the extracts (MIC values 0.56–1.95 mg/mL) and moderate antifungal activity (MIC values 1.13–2.40 mg/mL) were noticed, while the sample with the highest activity had a significant content in terpenes (Mediterranean type). Propolis samples from the PNP area represent a rich source of antibacterial and antioxidant compounds and confirm the fact that propolis is a significant natural product with potential use for improving human health and stimulating the body’s defense. Finally, it is noteworthy that a significant chemical diversity was demonstrated, even in samples from a limited geographical area as this of PNP.

Logging legacies in a plant biodiversity hotspot: Altered distribution and abundance patterns of the shrub layer in the southern Appalachians

Altered disturbance regimes in forest ecosystems can lead to the formation of dense, persistent understory vegetation composed of a small number of dominant species. This understory layer often limits tree seedling recruitment, decreases biodiversity, and can alter forest ecosystem structure and functioning. In the southern Appalachians – one of the most biodiverse regions in North America – pervasive logging in the 19th and early 20th centuries may have contributed to the formation of a dense understory shrub layer that suppresses plant diversity and tree recruitment, but the evidence for this idea has been mixed. To help clarify this issue, we tested whether (a) the two dominant understory shrub taxa (Kalmia latifolia and evergreen Rhododendron species) were more common or more abundant in areas with a history of intense logging than in areas undisturbed by logging, and (b) the relationships between the understory shrub layer and environmental gradients that drive regional biodiversity and plant distributions in the Southern Appalachians (e.g., climate, soils) differ in logged versus undisturbed areas. We used publicly available, extensive, and spatially explicit data on vegetation, climate, topography, soils, solar radiation, and logging history in Great Smoky Mountains National Park to build beta and binomial regression models of shrub frequency and cover as a function of logging history and environmental variables. Contrary to our expectation and speculations in the literature, we found that the dominant shrub taxa were more common (frequent) in areas with no logging history. However, we also found that logging history effects on shrub abundance (cover) varied along environmental gradients. For example, in topographically shaded landscape positions evergreen Rhododendron thickets exhibited greater cover in logged areas than in areas with no logging history. On the other hand, Rhododendron thickets exhibited lower cover in logged areas than in areas with no logging history at low elevations. Thus, conservation planning and forest management in topographically complex regions need to consider both landscape context (e.g., elevation, landscape position) and past logging as important interacting drivers that either facilitate or suppress local formation of dense shrub understories that can ultimately impact tree regeneration patterns, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning.

DIFFERENTIATION IN PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY TO CLIMATE AMONG ERIOGONUM FASCICULATUM SUBSP. FOLIOLOSUM (POLYGONACEAE) POPULATIONS IN CALIFORNIA

California, a hotspot of plant biodiversity, is projected to experience a significant increase in average temperature by the end of the century, from +1.5°C under low emissions to +4°C under medium-high emissions models. This warming could severely affect unique, endemic ecosystems like the chaparral. Phenotypic plasticity, the capacity of organisms to express different phenotypes in response to environmental cues, may be an important means by which plants adjust to climate change. Here, we examine differentiation in two traits related to climate adaptation, leaf length and trichome density, previously observed to differ qualitatively between coastal and inland populations of Eriogonum fasciculatum subsp. foliolosum (Nutt.) S.Stokes. We quantitatively verify these leaf trait differences, assess whether they are plastic to temperature, and also assess whether coastal and inland populations express this plasticity differently. We performed field collections, established a novel procedure for vegetative propagation of woody cuttings, and grew cuttings and germinated seeds in temperature treatments simulating current conditions and those projected by future climate models. Our results revealed that leaf traits of both populations respond plastically to temperature, and we also found differentiation for the plasticity expressed by the two populations. Population genetic analyses detected limited genetic differentiation and high gene flow between these two populations, indicating that the observed differentiation in plasticity may be locally adaptive. Together, these findings suggest that this system may exemplify genetic accommodation, in which the evolution of plasticity mediates adaptation, and imply that variation in plasticity is relevant to conservation strategies for this plant and other California native chaparral shrubs in the face of climate change.

Gradients in the Diversity of Plants and Large Herbivores Revealed with DNA Barcoding in a Semi-Arid African Savanna

Do hotspots of plant biodiversity translate into hotspots in the abundance and diversity of large mammalian herbivores? A common expectation in community ecology is that the diversity of plants and animals should be positively correlated in space, as with the latitudinal diversity gradient and the geographic mosaic of biodiversity. Whether this pattern ‘scales down’ to landscape-level linkages between the diversity of plants or the activities of highly mobile megafauna has received less attention. We investigated spatial associations between plants and large herbivores by integrating data from a plant-DNA-barcode phylogeny, camera traps, and a comprehensive map of woody plants across the 1.2-km2 Mpala Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO) plot, Kenya. Plant and large herbivore communities were strongly associated with an underlying soil gradient, but the richness of large herbivore species was negatively correlated with the richness of woody plants. Results suggest thickets and steep terrain create associational refuges for plants by deterring megaherbivores from browsing on otherwise palatable species. Recent work using dietary DNA metabarcoding has demonstrated that large herbivores often directly control populations of the plant species they prefer to eat, and our results reinforce the important role of megaherbivores in shaping vegetation across landscapes.

Plant biodiversity hotspots mapping and prioritization in the Bulgarian floristic region Eastern Balkan Mountains

The main goal of the present study was to create a dynamic map of plant biodiversity hotspots of the Bulgarian floristic region Eastern Balkan Mountains. A GIS model, as well as a weighted value scheme for scoring each area, were created in order to identify and to prioritize the hotspots. A total number of defined hot spots of phytodiversity was 34. They were categorized into five classes, based on the cumulative weighted value scheme, and were indicated on the map using color scale. The territories into category I predominated, contrary to preceding investigations of the Black Sea coast and northeastern Bulgaria where category V predominated. In addition, an attempt to refine the borders of the floristic region was made.

Plant biodiversity hotspots mapping and prioritization in the Bulgarian floristic region Eastern Balkan Mountains

Plant biodiversity hotspots mapping and prioritization in the Bulgarian floristic region Eastern Balkan Mountains

Opportunities and Challenges to Improve a Public Research Program in Plant Breeding and Enhance Underutilized Plant Genetic Resources in the Tropics.

The American tropics are hotspots of wild and domesticated plant biodiversity, which is still underutilized by breeding programs despite being conserved at regional gene banks. The improvement of those programs depends on long-term public funds and the maintenance of specialized staff. Unfortunately, financial ups and downs complicate staff connectivity and their research impact. Between 2000 and 2010, Agrosavia (Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria) dramatically decreased its public financial support. In 2017, we surveyed all 52 researchers from Agrosavia involved in plant breeding and plant genetic resource programs to examine the effect of decimating funds in the last ten years. We hypothesized that the staff dedicated to plant breeding still suffer a strong fragmentation and low connectivity. As we expected, the social network among researchers is weak. The top ten central leaders are predominantly males with an M.Sc. degree but have significant experience in the area. The staff has experience in 31 tropical crops, and 17 are on the list of underutilized species. Moreover, although 26 of these crops are in the national germplasm bank, this has not been the primary source for their breeding programs. We proposed five principles to improve connectivity among teams and research impact: (1) The promotion of internal discussion about gender gaps and generation shifts to design indicators to monitor and decrease this disparity over time. (2) The construction of long-term initiatives and synergies with the Colombian government to support the local production of food security crops independent of market trends. (3) Better collaboration between the National Plant Germplasm Bank and plant breeding researchers. (4) A concerted priority list of species (especially those neglected or underutilized) and external institutions to better focus the collaborative efforts in research using public funds. (5) Better spaces for the design of projects among researchers and training programs in new technologies. These principles could also apply in other tropical countries with public plant breeding research programs facing similar challenges.

Biogeographic history and environmental niche evolution in the palearctic genus Helianthemum (Cistaceae)

The biogeographic history and the degree of environmental niche conservatism provide essential clues to decipher the underlying macroevolutionary processes of species diversification and to understand contemporary patterns of biodiversity. The genus Helianthemum constitutes an excellent case study to investigate the impact of the geo-climatic changes and the environmental niche shifts on the origins of plant species diversity in the Mediterranean hotspot. It is a palearctic species-rich lineage with c. 140 species and subspecies mostly belonging to three distinct evolutionary radiations, almost confined to the Mediterranean region and occurring across varied environmental conditions. In this work, we studied the ample and rapid diversification of the genus Helianthemum across its whole distribution range by performing phylogenetic reconstructions of ancestral ranges and environmental niche evolution. We observed a striking synchrony of biogeographic movements with niche shifts between the three major clades of the genus Helianthemum, likely related to the geo-climatic events occurred in the Mediterranean Basin since the Upper Miocene. In particular, Late Miocene and Early Pliocene were dominated by episodes of range expansions, the Late Pliocene by range contraction and vicariance events, and Pleistocene by most intense environmental niche shifts and in-situ diversification. Our study also provides evidence for four main environmental niches in Helianthemum (i.e., Mediterranean, subdesert, humid-montane and subtropical-insular) and a tendency toward environmental niche conservatism within different subclades, with few niche shifts mostly occurring from Mediterranean ancestors. The relative longer time spent in Mediterranean areas by the ancestors of Helianthemum suggests that the larger species diversity observed in the Mediterranean (i.e. Northern Africa and Southern Europe) may have been generated by a time-for-speciation effect reinforced by environmental niche conservatism. Overall, our work highlights the role of the Mediterranean Basin as a ‘cradle of diversity’ and an ‘evolutionary hub’, facilitating the environmental transitions and determining the building up of a global plant biodiversity hotspot.

Assessment of the Potential Risk of Rock-Climbing for Cliff Plant Species and Natural Protected Areas of Spain

In recent years, the popularity of rock-climbing has grown tremendously, setting an increasing pressure on cliff habitats. Climbing may be particularly harmful in the Mediterranean biome due to its appropriate environmental conditions for climbing. A few studies have identified the effect of climbing on plant diversity at a small-scale (namely locally or even just in specific climbing areas). However, no studies exist assessing the potential risk of rock-climbing on a broad-scale (e.g., regional or national). The study aims to identify the priority locations and priority cliff plant species in Spain to focus future study efforts. Spain was selected because it is a plant biodiversity hotspot, with a great diversity of endemic and endangered species, and one of the most popular destinations for climbers. We used a geographic information system-based approach to model the spatial concurrence among Spanish climbing areas (and climbing intensity), natural protected areas (NPAs), and distribution of threatened cliff plants (and their IUCN threat category). We found that 53.5% of climbing areas in Spain are located within a NPA, most of them falling into NPAs of medium protection level. We mapped 151 threatened cliff plants, identifying four medium priority Mediterranean locations and eight priority species in which future research efforts should be focused. High-priority study locations are absent in Spain according to our spatial modeling. For the first time on a national scale, this study identifies areas in which climbing represents a potential threat for cliff habitats and threatened plants. These findings contribute to designing field studies on the effects of rock-climbing on Mediterranean cliffs, laying the groundwork for a sustainable, yet challenging, balance between the protection of these unique habitats and rock-climbing.

Spatial patterns of genus‐level phylogenetic endemism in the tree flora of Mediterranean Europe

AbstractAimThe Mediterranean Basin is a major hotspot of plant biodiversity, including forest trees. Over the past centuries, Mediterranean forests have been fragmented and over‐exploited, to which the threats of climate change are now added. Our aim is to better understand patterns and processes of tree biodiversity in the Mediterranean and to provide indicators complementing the traditional approaches to biodiversity conservation based on species counts and occurrences, using georeferenced phylogenetic diversity and endemism analyses in a spatial ecological context.LocationMediterranean Europe.MethodsUsing a dated phylogeny of the 64 Euro‐Mediterranean tree genera, we calculated phylogenetic diversity for all 50 × 50 km2 grid cells spanning Mediterranean Europe (n = 643) and compared values with those obtained for genus‐level taxonomic diversity. Then, we tested the relative influence of geography, past and present climate, and soil on tree diversity (phylogenetic or taxonomic) and its geographical turnover. Geographical patterns of phylogenetic endemism were inferred using the Categorical Analyses of Neo‐ and Paleo‐Endemism (CANAPE) methodology.ResultsWe showed that phylogenetic and taxonomic diversity within and among cells are correlated and influenced by soil parameters as well as current, Holocene and Late Glacial Maximum climate. Southern Spain, Cyprus and some Aegean islands contained areas of disproportionately high phylogenetic diversity and a concentration of phylogenetic paleo‐endemics, while phylogenetic neo‐endemism was high in eastern Sicily. Mixed phylogenetic endemism regions were detected in southern Spain and Portugal, in the Balkans and in Crete.Main conclusionsOur phylogenetic approach provides relevant indicators for better protecting forests of the Mediterranean, encompassing past and present evolutionary processes and factors. We consider areas that show a concentration of evolutionary history manifested by high phylogenetic endemism as high priority targets for the conservation of the European tree flora.

Plant Endemism Centres and Biodiversity Hotspots in Greece.

Simple SummaryAiming to cope with the provisions of Aichi Biodiversity Targets, EU Biodiversity Strategy and EU Green Deal, we conducted the first nationwide, phylogenetically informed identification of vascular plant diversity hotspots and endemism centres in Greece. By this, we identified the most important factors that shaped them, and assessed the effectiveness of the Special Areas of Conservation of the Natura 2000 network in safeguarding them. Qualitative and quantitative results are provided and presented in thematic maps and relevant diagrams, highlighting areas of conservation importance, and identifying current protection scheme gaps. Simultaneously, our work contributes to national efforts for drafting Natura 2000 sites Management Plans, as well as to the MAES implementation in Greece.Biodiversity hotspots (BH) cover a small fraction of the Earth’s surface, yet host numerous endemics. Human-induced biodiversity loss has been increasing worldwide, despite attempts to halt the extinction crisis. There is thus an urgent need to efficiently allocate the available conservation funds in an optimised conservation prioritization scheme. Identifying BH and endemism centres (EC) is therefore a valuable tool in conservation prioritization and planning. Even though Greece is one of the most plant species-rich European countries, few studies have dealt with the identification of BH or EC and none has ever incorporated phylogenetic information or extended to the national scale. Consequently, we are unaware of the extent that Special Areas of Conservation (SAC) of the Natura 2000 network efficiently protect Greek plant diversity. Here, we located for the first time at a national scale and in a phylogenetic framework, the areas serving as BH and EC, and assessed the effectiveness of the Greek SAC in safeguarding them. BH and EC are mainly located near mountainous areas, and in areas supposedly floristically impoverished, such as the central Aegean islands. A critical re-assessment of the Greek SAC might be needed to minimize the extinction risk of the Greek endemics, by focusing the conservation efforts also on the BH and EC that fall outside the established Greek SAC.

Consistent population declines but idiosyncratic range shifts in Alpine orchids under global change

Mountains are plant biodiversity hotspots considered particularly vulnerable to multiple environmental changes. Here, we quantify population changes and range-shift dynamics along elevational gradients over the last three decades for c. two-thirds of the orchid species of the European Alps. Local extinctions were more likely for small populations, after habitat alteration, and predominated at the rear edge of species’ ranges. Except for the most thermophilic species and wetland specialists, population density decreased over time. Declines were more pronounced for rear-edge populations, possibly due to multiple pressures such as climate warming, habitat alteration, and mismatched ecological interactions. Besides these demographic trends, different species exhibited idiosyncratic range shifts with more than 50% of the species lagging behind climate warming. Our study highlights the importance of long-term monitoring of populations and range distributions at fine spatial resolution to be able to fully understand the consequences of global change for orchids.

Genetic Distinctiveness Highlights the Conservation Value of a Sicilian Manna Ash Germplasm Collection Assigned to Fraxinus angustifolia (Oleaceae).

The cosmopolitan genus Fraxinus comprises about 40 species occupying several habitats in the Northern Hemisphere. With some species hybridizing and sharing genetic variants, questions remain on the species assignment of germplasm within the genus Fraxinus despite numerous species-specific assessments. A multidisciplinary approach was employed to provide a definitive insight into the genetics of an endangered Fraxinus “manna ash” collection, located in a rich plant biodiversity hotspot of the Madonie Mountains (Sicily). Although the collection size was small, genetic diversity, assessed by chloroplast (cpSSR) and nuclear (nSSR) microsatellites (SSR—Simple Sequence Repeats), allowed identifying three different chloroplast haplotypes, with one (H5) dominant, and several polymorphic loci, able to discriminate most of the local accessions studied. Molecular data were linked to cytofluorimetric and phenotypic evaluations and, contrary to popular belief that manna ash is Fraxinus ornus L., the germplasm currently used for manna production belongs to Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl. Interestingly, joint analysis of our genetic panel with a large European dataset of Fraxinus spp. suggested the presence of a possible glacial refuge in Sicily, confirming its importance as biodiversity source. Our results will be helpful for the design of long-term conservation programs for genetic resources, such as in situ and ex situ conservation, seed collection and tree reintroduction.

FloraSNevada: a trait database of the vascular flora of Sierra Nevada, southeast Spain.

Providing a complete data set with species and trait information for a given area is essential for assessing plant conservation, management, and ecological restoration, for both local and global applications. Also, these data sets provide additional information for surveys or data collections, establishing the starting point for more detailed studies on plant evolution, vegetation dynamics, and vegetation responses to disturbance and management. This data base covers Sierra Nevada mountains (southeastern Spain), a recognized plant biodiversity hotspot within the Mediterranean context. According to previous available data (before this augmented compilation), these mountains host 7% of the 24,000 Mediterranean vascular plants, despite covering just 0.01% of its area. Another characteristic of the Sierra Nevada is the great singularity of its flora, with 95 taxa being endemic to the high-mountain area of Sierra Nevada and surroundings. From these endemic taxa, 70% are endangered by different threats, global warming being a leading cause. We seek to provide a complete and updated database of the flora of the Sierra Nevada mountains (southeast Spain). The goal of the present data set is to compile the names of all the vascular plant taxa inhabiting Sierra Nevada, together with relevant features including taxonomical, morphological-ecological traits, distribution, habitats, abundance, and conservation status. The data were compiled according to all the available information sources on taxonomy, ecology, and plant-species distribution. The resulting data set includes 2,348 taxa belonging to 1,937 species, 377 subspecies, and 34 hybrids, from a total of 756 genera and 146 families represented in the collection. For each taxa, together with taxonomical information (Phylum, Class, Family, Genus, Taxa), we compiled plant traits (life form, spinescence, flower symmetry, flower sexuality, plant gender, androecium:ginoecium ratio, flower color, perianth type, pollinator type, flowering, seed dispersal, and vegetative reproduction), and their environmental association (origin, endemic character, general distribution, substrate, elevation, habitat, local abundance, hygrophilous behavior, and conservation status). All these traits were compiled from all the available information sources, resulting in a complete and updated database for Sierra Nevada vascular flora. This data set provides valuable information on plant traits in an outstanding micro hotspot within the Mediterranean hotspot. This data set can be freely used for noncommercial purposes. This data set is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (CC BY 4.0). When you use this data set, we request that you cite the data and this data paper.

Diversity Patterns of Different Life Forms of Plants along an Elevational Gradient in Crete, Greece

Elevational gradients provide a unique opportunity to explore species responses to changing environmental conditions. Here, we focus on an elevational gradient in Crete, a climate-vulnerable Mediterranean plant biodiversity hotspot and explore the diversity patterns and underlying mechanisms of different plant life forms. We found that the significant differences in life forms’ elevational and environmental ranges are reflected in α- diversity (species richness at local scale), γ-diversity (species richness at regional scale) and β-diversity (variation in species composition). The α- and γ-diversity decreased with elevation, while β-diversity followed a hump-shaped relationship, with the peak varying between life forms. However, β-deviation (deviation from null expectations) varied significantly with elevation but was life formindependent. This suggests that species composition is shaped by the size of the available species pool which depends on life form, but also by other deterministic or stochastic processes that act in a similar way for different life forms. The strength of these processes varies with elevation, with hotter–drier conditions and increased human activities filtering species composition at lowlands and large-scale processes determining the species pool size overriding local ecological processes at higher elevations.

Archaeospora ecuadoriana sp. nov. from a mountainous biodiversity hotspot area in Ecuador, and transfer of Palaeospora spainiae to Archaeospora, as A. spainiae comb. nov.

A new glomeromycotan fungus, Archaeospora ecuadoriana sp. nov., was found in the south Ecuadorian mountain rainforest region, a global plant biodiversity hotspot. It was cultivated as single spore isolate originating from nursery-grown native tree seedlings inoculated with mixed soil from pristine forest and agricultural fields. The new species is known from the Loja area, southern Ecuador, at about 2100m above mean sea level (mamsl) and has been detected in potato roots from an Andean region in Peru at 2658 mamsl by previous molecular data. The fungus forms small, colourless to frosted white, mainly globose spores, averaging 61 × 60μm, formed singly or very rarely in clusters. There is no reaction to Melzer's reagent, other than a slight unspecific overall yellow iodine staining. The spores are very similar to those of Archaeospora trappei and A. schenckii. However, molecular phylogenetic analysis shows the species to be clearly separate from all other described Archaeospora species. The analysis of the available Archaeospora sequence data shows that sequences of Palaeospora spainiae, of the monospecific genus Palaeospora, cluster within the genus Archaeospora. Palaeospora therefore is synonymised with Archaeospora and P. spainiae is transferred to Archaeospora, as A. spainiae comb. nov.

Photometric Analysis of Propolis from the Island of Samothraki, Greece. The Discovery of Red Propolis.

Propolis presents notable and variable antioxidant activity depending on the territory and the local flora. As a result, propolis collected from areas presenting botanical diversity can become an intriguing research field. In the present study, we examined propolis from different areas of Samothraki, a small Greek island in the north-eastern Aegean Sea, considered a hot-spot of plant biodiversity. The analysis of propolis samples presented huge variability in the antioxidant activity, the total polyphenol content and the total flavonoids content. Propolis from two areas presented high antioxidant activity with a maximum at 1741.48 μmol of Trolox equivalents per gram of dry propolis weight, very high polyphenol content, 378.73 mg of gallic acid equivalents per gram of dry propolis weight, and high flavonoid content with a maximum concentration of 70.31 mg of quercetin equivalents per gram of dry propolis weight. The samples that presented the best qualitative characteristics were all red propolis which is a type that has never been reported in any part of Europe.