Hot Humid Weather Research Articles

Green School Buildings and Environmental Holistic Elements Approach to Cope with Hot and Humid Climate Challenges – Bahrain Case Study

Public schools in Bahrain and in the Arabian Gulf Region are facing poor indoor and outdoor environments due to the prevailing problem of harsh hot humid weather most of the year. This leads to high consumption of energy, and other resources due to the nature function of the schools. This necessitates effective actions to fill the gap and address properly the climate issues, consumption of resources, and design challenges. Reviewing related literature indicated a lack of Arab region studies in this field, in contrast to Foreign Studies. This gap includes items such as knowledge, data collection, design flaws, performance, guidelines and others. The objectives of this article are to investigate, and identify factors, green elements and possible solutions contributing to sustaining green public-school buildings and the environment while saving national resources and meeting performance sustainable criteria for school buildings and students. Literature review and qualitative descriptive method are essential investigation methodologies. The goal of qualitative descriptive studies is a comprehensive summarization and categorical. Literature review was the main action in the process to start exploring prior research and published works on green school buildings. Collected data on research materials published by reliable professional institutions and research are reviewed, explored, identified, categorized, and summarized in outputs. These are discussed and analyzed to ensure their positive influence on schools’ buildings and address collective challenges. Findings can be summarized in the following outputs: Characteristics. Advantages. Guidelines and standards. Green Building Council’s influence. Performance and rating tools for schools and students. Statistics. Innovation and Case studies and Lessons learned. The first Bahrain green school case study will contribute to the exchange experience with others concerned. In conclusion, this article recommends greening school buildings and environment design through various sustainable elements that are included in the results to enhance school buildings, the environment and student performance.

Traditionally Originated Modern Technology Motivated Passive Downdraft Cooling System: An Eco-friendly Triple Harvest Solution

With rising heat waves and climate change, the big cities are meshing up with the buildings woven in urban fabric that are becoming power-guzzling air-conditioning machines that increase energy demand multi-fold. This has the side effect of heating up the environment because the return heat from air conditioners mixes with the surrounding air. This dents the microclimate and makes the micro and macro systems worse, as this process is continuous without break. So it will be a disaster for the environment in the future. To mitigate the problem, the paper borrows traditional wisdom to merge with smart technology and create comfortable built spaces in hot-dry and hot-humid weather conditions, based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the venturi effect, and the faraday law of electromagnetic induction. The output of adopting these principles creates comfort conditions for air ventilation with improved air quality and a natural air-conditioning system, ensuring the luxury of contact-free cool air in habitable spaces. The process is based on interoperability, which is built into the system to self-generate and consume renewable energy. The integration of information into the system is a spontaneous cycle of production and consumption of energy. This ensures its self-sufficiency, which bridges the research gap in the design of an upgraded passive downdraft cooling system with three self-sufficient and effective benefits in a single system.

Correlation of AC energy consumption and passive thermal comfort with floor levels in tropical high-rise residential dwellings

The relationship between thermal comfort, building floor levels, and HVAC energy consumption in tropical high-rise residential buildings remains unclear. These buildings face heavy cooling demands due to their immense height and volume, as well as hot-humid weather found in the tropics. Architects and building developers understand that an increase in a building's floor count increases its energy requirements, but the impact on occupant thermal requirements and AC energy consumption needs further investigation. This study aimed to evaluate the relationship between passive thermal comfort, AC energy consumption, and floor levels in tropical high-rise residential buildings through survey and experimental methods. The results showed a significant relationship between thermal sensation votes and building floor levels, as well as AC energy consumption and floor levels. The study also found a strong correlation between thermal sensation votes and predicted mean votes, AC energy use, and predicted people dissatisfied. The optimal cut-off floors for thermal dissatisfaction according to (TSV) are 22nd floor and 8th floor in summer and monsoon seasons respectively. With a 90% sensitivity and 92% specificity. This research highlights the importance of addressing thermal comfort in high-rise buildings to improve energy efficiency and thermal comfort in tropical climates.

Investigation on the thermal insulation and evaporative resistance of outdoor backpacks based on a sweating thermal manikin

The thermal insulation and evaporative resistance of backpacks are vital for users’ physical performance and safety. In hot humid weather, users carrying a backpack with high thermal insulation and evaporative resistance may face the risk of heat stress, such as heat stroke. However, few studies have investigated the thermal insulation and evaporative resistance of backpacks. In this study, a sweating thermal manikin was employed to evaluate the thermal insulation and evaporative resistance of backpacks. Four backpack samples with different back panel designs were tested under two load conditions (0 and 5 kg), two wind speeds (0.3 and 1.5 m/s), and two body movement levels (inactive 0 km/h and walking at a 2.5 km/h speed). Test results showed that the back panel designs fundamentally determined the thermal insulation and evaporative resistance. Both the air-permeable design of the back panel’s filling material and the ventilation design of the back panel structure could improve the heat dissipation performance of the backpack. However, the ventilation designs that formed tunnels with openings between the backpacks and the human body showed more efficient heat dissipation. In practical application, the resultant thermal insulation and evaporative resistance were affected by the load condition, wind speed, and body movement. However, backpacks with better ventilation were less affected by external conditions. The findings of this study provide fundamental knowledge to improve the heat dissipation property of outdoor backpacks.

Assessing heat index changes in the context of climate change: A case study of Hanoi (Vietnam)

Air temperature and humidity have a great impact on public health, leads to heat stress. The US National Weather Service uses temperature and relative humidity to build a heat index (HI) as a metric to identify the thresholds for heat stress as felt by the public. Under climate change conditions and especially in hot humid weather during summer, the number of hot days in Hanoi has increased in recent times. Subsequently, the heat index is rising in both number of occurrences and level of intensity leading to increasing temperature stress on people’s health. The daily heat index for the future was simulated using maximum daily temperature and minimum daily relative humidity based on climate change scenarios. Maximum daily temperature was provided by the climate change model, while minimum daily relative humidity was estimated from the following: maximum daily temperature, mean daily temperature and daily rainfall. Results show that in the future, the heat index will increase by 0.0777°C/year in the RCP 4.5 scenario and 0.08°C/year in the RCP 8.5 scenario. Number of weeks with heat at danger tends to increase to 5.5 weeks/5 year for scenario RCP 4.5, and it is 6 weeks/5 years under RCP 8.5 scenario. In particular, the number of days of heatstroke over a 30-year period (from 1991 to 2020) amounted to only 4, that is an average of 0.13 days of the year, which represents a very rare weather phenomenon in the past. In contrast, under an RCP 4.5 scenario in the future over a 30-year period, the average number of days per year will be 2, 57 days; while the average number of days per year under an RCP 8.5 scenario would be 3, 87 days. This phenomenon will be mainly concentrated in the months of June, July, and August. Projections of this type are a key tool for communities working out how they will adapt to heat stress in the context of climate change.

The application of control algorithm for optimal performance of evaporatively-cooled façade system in hot dry and humid weathers

An evaporatively-cooled façade system, composed of a Photovoltaic thermal (PVT), evaporative cooler, and evaporatively-cooled façade, was previously developed. In this study, a control algorithm for the system parameters is implemented and applied on spaces with evaporatively-cooled façade to generate the least possible façade temperature, and consequently maximum possible energy savings. The optimization of the system parameters is expected to overcome the limitations of using evaporative coolers in humid countries. The application of the control algorithm managed to increase the reductions in the façade heat gain from 33.5% to 38.3%.The system, integrated with the control algorithm, is then applied throughout the year on spaces located in Doha (Qatar) and Riyadh (Saudi Arabia), mimicking cities with harshly hot humid and dry weather conditions, respectively. The daily and monthly performances are further investigated in four different space orientations (i.e., north, east, south, and west). It was found that the application of the system can halve the highly glazed façade heat gain during the summer, in all orientations, and may have adverse, yet desirable effect during the winter. The integration of the control algorithm managed to reduce differences in system performance between dry and humid locations, thus generating total annual savings of up to 21.8% in any typical city of the Arabian Gulf.

Performance Optimization of a Simplified Passive Design Space in Diversified Climatic Contexts

Purpose: Building design optimization could be performed in various ways. In most cases, potential design alternatives are evaluated against multi-criteria performance indicators through iterative create-test processes. Especially for the early design stage, optimum passive design of a building tends to be more critical and needs to be investigated rigorously. This study focuses on building passive design optimization in different global regions considering their climatic characteristics. Site location, building orientation, wall construction, and glazing assemblies are considered to be primary passive design variables. Objective functions for optimization include occupancy comfort, capital cost, and life-cycle cost. Method: By utilizing Design Builder’s genetic-algorithm-based optimization tool, a single-room type highly simplified spatial unit virtually being located in 5 different global regions (Jakarta, Cairo, Buenos Aires, Seoul, and Resolute) is evaluated and optimized against two essential design criteria. Result: It is turned out that passive building design in different climatic contexts may lead to a different set of strategies to minimize occupant’s discomfort and life-cycle cost. The research outcome shows that the lowest solar transmission glazing assembly, which is critical for optimum passive design strategy in cooling-dominated regions may not function properly in the locations where tropical hot-humid weather prevail.

Effect of ramadan fasting on microvascular complications in type1 diabetic patients

Abstract Background Diabetes is a complex, chronic illness requiring continuous medical care with multifactorial risk-reduction strategies beyond glycemic control. Ongoing patient self-management education and support are critical to preventing acute complications and reducing the risk of long-term complications. Significant evidence exists that supports a range of interventions to improve diabetes outcomes. Objective This study aimed to demonstrate the impact of fasting on primarily on ẻGFR & microalbuminuria in people with type 1 diabetes and secondarily on neuropathy & retinopathy. It was conducted on 60 patients with T1DM. All patients underwent full history taking, full clinical examination and biochemical tests including FBG, 2h PPBG, HbA1c, fructosamine, s.creatinine, BUN, uACR, eGFR, fundus examination and DN4 Q. Methods This study was conducted on 60 type 1 diabetic patients with microalbuminuria intending to fast Ramadan. Patients were recruited from internal medicine and diabetes clinics of Ain Shams University. The study performed health education 2 months prior to Ramadan 1438 (2017) with follow up throughout the month and after Ramadan. The patients were on basal-bolus regimen, 36 were on lantus, 17 were on NPH and the remaining 7 patients didnot complete the follow up after Ramadan for family reasons. Results There had been significant difference between pre and post-fasting as regards weight and BMI, and non significant difference regards waist circumference. Also highly significant difference between basal and bolus doses before and during Ramadan. There had been no significant difference between pre and post Ramadan regarding fundus examination, systolic and diastolic blood pressure and a significant difference regarding DN4 Q. Regarding no. of successful fasting days and attacks of hypoglycemia, a significant difference was found. Significant difference in FBS, 2hr PPBG, BUN, s.creatinine, uACR and eGFR, and fructosamine. There was a significant positive correlation between eGFR and height, weight before Ramadan and between eGFR and height, weight after Ramadan, no. of successful fasting days Ramadan 2017. Also a significant negative correlation was shown between eGFR and A / C ratio, Cr, BUN before Ramadan and between éGFR and Cr, BUN after Ramadan. Height, BUN before and after Ramadan and A / C ratio before Ramadan were found to be independent predictors of eGFR. Conclusion Ramadan fasting appears to have significant impact on microvascular complications of type 1 DM patients. These impacts can be attributed to many factors as physical sloth, change of time and pattern of feeding, climate conditions at time of fasting especially hot humid weather predisposing to more frequent dehydration with its sequelae as well as non-compliance of some patients to the proper lifestyle, diet and medications.

Utilization of Glass Powder and Oil Palm Fibers to Develop Thermally Efficient Blocks

Increasing concern over environmental issues has put onus on the construction industry to develop products and materials that are more sustainable and environmentally friendly. This paper focuses on the utilization of oil palm fibers (OPF) and glass powder (GP) to develop thermally efficient building material as a sustainable alternative. OPF are abundantly available in Malaysia as waste in palm oil manufacturing and are found to be useful in enhancing the thermal performance of building material , while waste glass, which contributes to municipal solid waste generation, can be beneficially utilized as a supplementary cementitious material as it possesses pozzolanic behavior. OPF-reinforced blocks were successfully developed with targeted thermal, mechanical and microstructural properties as a sustainable alternative for application in the hot–humid weather conditions in Malaysia. This paper reports on the development of the glass powder–fiber-reinforced mortar (GPFRM) as a final phase of the research in the development of a sustainable thermally efficient wall system. The GPFRM mix was prepared utilizing fibers in ratios of 0.5%, 1% and 1.5% by weight of the binder, whereas GP was incorporated by replacement of 10% and 20% of cement. The developed GPFRM besides having good thermal performance has acceptable mechanical performance, hence proving to be a sustainable alternative to conventional mortar to be incorporated within masonry wall systems.

Comparative reviews on phytochemical components of lt;emgt;Andrographis paniculatalt;/emgt;

Comparative study was attempted to investigate the effects of locations (Ibadan 1, India, Ibadan 2 and Malaysia as A, B, C, & D), harvesting periods (January, June and September), drying methods (air, sun and Oven dry) and solvents (Methanol, Ethanol+ Water, Ethyl-acetate, Petroleum ether, Aqeuous/water, on the quality of phytochemicals in A. paniculata using standard methods to determine 9 phytochemicals: Tannins, Glycosides, Saponins, Flavonoids, Phenols, Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Steroids and Carbohydrates. Sample A: had 4 (Flavonoids, Steroids, Phenols and Alkaloids, and Tannins, Carbohydrates were slightly present (2), Glycosides, Saponins and Terpenoids were absent. Sample B: all the six phytochemicals Tannins, Flavonoids, Steroids, Carbonhydrates, Alkaloids and Terpenoids were slightly present. Sample C: 6 phytochemicals were present (Tannins, Saponins, Flavonoids, Steroids, Phenols, Carbohydrates and Alkaloids), while Carbohydrates was absent Sample D: Tannins, Glycosides, Saponins, Flavonoids, Phenols, Alkaloids and Terpenoids were present while Steroids and Carbohydrates were absent. From the study, sample D (Malaysia) had the highest quality of phytochemicals, followed by C; A while B (India) had the least. A. paniculata likes hot humid weather (summer), in Malaysia (June to August) while autumn last from September to December. In Nigeria: April to October while autumn (dry season): November to March, India, April to October to November. All the factors in sample D were observed to be good for the preservation of phytochemicals in the plant. The solvents (Methanol and aqueous), drying methods (Oven drying) and period harvested (early autumn) were good for extraction of high quality of phytochemicals in A. paniculata.

PSXI-1 Effects of mineral supplementation during summer on physiological variables and milk production in Holstein dairy cows

Abstract Summer season in northwest Mexico is characterized by hot-humid weather conditions that lead to heat stress and affect physiological and productive performance of lactating Holstein cows. Mineral supplementation has been proposed as strategy to alleviate negative effects of heat stress in dairy cattle. Thus, the objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of an injectable mineral supplement on physiological variables and milk production in Holstein cows managed during summer. Sixteen cows were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 experimental groups: Mineral-treated (TRT; n = 8) or control (CON; n = 8). The TRT group received 3 injections of Fosfosan® (10 ml, i.m., Virbac, Uruguay), on days 0, 7 and 17, considering summer onset as day 0 (June 21st), whereas group CON was untreated. Physiological variables such as respiratory rate (RR), vaginal temperature (VT) and skin-surface temperature (SST), were registered twice a week (0500-1700 h) during 6 weeks. Ambient temperature and humidity were collected to calculate the daily temperature and humidity index (THI). Data were analyzed using a mixed model with repeated measures, which included fixed effects of treatment, time and treatment*time, and sire as random effect. According to the THI, Holstein cows were exposed to heat stress during the experiment (>72 units). Cows in the TRT group showed higher (P < 0.05) milk production than CON cows (17.93±0.47 vs 17.02±0.51 kg/day) and lower (P < 0.01) VT (39.14±0.11 vs 39.46±0.15 °C). Relative to CON cows, treated cows also had lower RR (63.16±0.65 vs 64.47±0.76 breaths/min) and lower SST (33.75±0.15 vs 34.02±0.16 °C). All physiological variables showed a significant effect of time (P < 0.01). In conclusion, mineral supplementation during summer appears to improve physiological and productive performance in heat-stressed milking dairy cows; therefore, we suggest to consider this management as strategy to reduce negative effects of summer and heat stress on the dairy industry in northwest Mexico.

Exploration of Profitability in The Cultivation of Ramie (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaudich.) Fibre for Sustaining Rural Livelihood

Ramie or (Boehmeria nivea L. Gaudich.) is one of the most valuable bast fibre yielding crops of the world. Ramie fibre is much more superior than the other commonly used plant fibres like jute, cotton, flax, etc. in terms of bundle tenacity, wet strength, fineness, ultimate fibre length and the length to breadth ratio. It is one of the strongest but stiffest bast fibre due to its high cellulose to hemicellulose ratio which favours a high degree of cellulose crystallinity. Besides having the unique physical properties, its silk-like appearance and anti-microbial property of the fibres as well as the medicinal value and antioxidant property of the ramie leaves make the plant utmost valuable in the International market. China is the chief ramie producer followed by Brazil and Philippines. In India there is a huge scope to exploit this fibre economically to get maximum benefit. The sandy loam soil with slopping land and hot-humid weather conditions that are required for ramie cultivation is available in the North Eastern parts of India. The foothills of Himalaya and the Brahmaputra valley of Assam, along with Western Ghats and Arunachal Pradesh have great natural resource to promote ramie cultivation. There is a great demand of ramie fibre in the market but the production is not enough to meet the need. This is an opportunity for the Indian farmers to start ramie cultivation in a wide range besides the regular cultivation of jute, cotton, mesta, flax, sisal, etc. As ramie has an inherent property to tolerate a wide range of temperature, soil and climatic factors, it isn't difficult to cultivate ramie in a large scale. Moreover, ramie being a perennial crop helps in soil conservation and can also be intercropped with other plants to get the economical benefit of both the crops. Scientific cultivation of ramie, therefore, can pave a new path for sustaining rural livelihood.

Performance of a solar-ambient hybrid source heat pump drier for copra drying under hot-humid weather conditions

This paper communicates the energy performance of a solar-ambient hybrid source heat pump drier (SAHSHPD) for copra drying under hot-humid weather conditions. The standard energy performance parameters such as coefficient of performance (COP), condenser heat capacity (Qc) and specific moisture extraction rate (SMER) were evaluated. The results showed that COP of a SAHSHPD was varied between 2.31 and 2.77 with an average value of 2.54. The condenser heating capacity was varied between 2900W and 3750W with an average value of 3290W. The SMER was calculated as 0.79kg/kWh. The moisture content (on wet basis) of the copra was reduced from about 52% to about 9.2% and 9.8% in 40h for trays at bottom and top, respectively. The quality of copra obtained in a SAHSHPD was found to be higher compared to other drying methods.

Cardiac strain comparison between workers with normal weight and overweight in the hot humid weather of the Persian Gulf region

Background:In the hot weather, overweight and obesity are considered as significant risk factors for the incidence of cardiac strain in workers. This study is aimed at comparing the cardiac strain among overweight and normal-weighted workers, in the hot, humid conditions of the south of Iran.Materials and Methods:This cross-sectional study was conducted on 71 workers in the south of Iran, in the summer of 2010. The heart rate was measured at rest and at actual work. Cardiac strain based on the working heart rate (WHR), the relative cardiac cost (RCC), the net cardiac cost (NCC), the load relative cardiovascular (CVL), and heart rate reduction were analyzed in 35 normal weight people (BMI <25) and 36 people who were overweight (BMI >25), using descriptive statistics and t- tests.Results:In 42% of the total workers, the body mass index was more than 25. The average temperature of the two groups was not significantly different. The mean WHR in these two groups was 101 ± 20.3 and 112 ± 18.9, respectively (P = 0.026). Percentages that exceeded the acceptable limits in parameters of NCC, RCC, WHR, CVL, and the Brouha index, were significantly higher in overweight people than those in people with normal weight.Conclusions:Based on the study results, the severity of cardiac strain was higher in overweight workers when compared with normal weight workers. Hence, in order to decrease the cardiac strain, selecting overweight individuals for these jobs should be avoided, as also some vital intervention for losing weight, such as, nutrition education and encouraging them to increase their physical activity, should be implemented.

Trigger factors in childhood migraine: a clinic-based study from Eastern India

Literature on triggers of childhood migraine is sparse. This study was carried out in 200 children (7–15 years) with migraine from a metropolitan city in Eastern India, both retrospectively and prospectively, with headache diaries to note the incidence of various triggers. In the retrospective study, triggers could be identified in 94% of subjects while in 100% of children in the prospective part of the study more than one trigger could be identified. Most migraine triggers identified were environmental (sun exposure, hot humid weather, smoke and noise) and stress related (school stress mostly). Quite often these operated concurrently to precipitate individual migraine attacks.

Potential use of evaporator coils for water extraction in hot and humid areas

Limits of water production from atmospheric water vapor are investigated for cases where fresh hot humid air is cooled over evaporator coils of refrigeration machines and then directed to open localized areas. This application may be considered as a source of limited amounts of potable water at a free cost since the water is a by-product of the climate conditioning process. For high air velocities, water yield was found to diminish due to insufficient evaporator capacity. On the other hand frosting effect was found to bind the vapor condensation process due to coolant starvation. A working chart was developed for quick prediction of water yield for any combination of atmospheric air temperature in the range (25 < T a < 40°C) and relative humidity in the range 30% < ϕ < 100%. The water yield due to air dehumidification on finned evaporator coils was calculated using a developed model that relates the surface efficiency to the enthalpy change of cooled moist air. The surface was treated as an extended finned coil with mean efficiency for wet and dry conditions. For typical hot humid weather (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, 21°23'N and 39°E), the daily variation of water yield showed to follow the relative humidity pattern with minimum during midday hours. The maximum water yield for August 1st was predicted as 17.6 kg/m 2 day for an air speed of 2.25 m/s. On the basis of actual climatic data, the monthly estimated average water yield during August and February were 509 and 401 kg/m 2, respectively.

Studies on solid desiccant based hybrid air-conditioning systems

Desiccant based air-conditioning systems offer a promising alternative to conventional air-conditioning systems using vapour compression refrigeration especially under conditions involving high latent loads. The desiccant can be used either in a stand-alone system or coupled judiciously with a vapour compression system to achieve high performance over a wide range of operating conditions. In this paper, the results of a detailed study of solid desiccant-based hybrid air-conditioning systems are presented. The literature review revealed that various authors differ in their evaluation of the efficacy of these systems. This seems to be due to different methods of modelling of dehumidifier and differences in the operating conditions of the cycles employed. Accordingly, the performance of four hybrid cycles (which include a new proposed cycle) for typical hot-dry and hot-humid weather conditions has been evaluated using a detailed procedure for the analysis of rotary dehumidifier, the most commonly employed industrial dehumidifier, based on the analogy method of Maclaine-Cross and Banks [I.L. Maclaine-Cross, P.J. Banks, Coupled heat and mass transfer in regenerators — predictions using an analogy with heat transfer, Int. J. of Heat and Mass Transfer 15 (1972) 1225–1241]. Effect of room sensible heat factor, ventilation mixing ratio, and regeneration temperature has also been studied. The results show that solid desiccant-based hybrid air-conditioning systems can give substantial energy savings as compared to conventional vapour compression refrigeration based air-conditioning systems in most commonly encountered situations.

Estimation and measurement of electric energy consumption due to air conditioning cooling load

Electric energy consumption due to air conditioning (A/C) in buildings is tremendous, especially in places having hot humid weather, such as Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Building simulation programs, such as DOE2, are very valuable tools to study building energy consumption under different conditions. These programs can be used to investigate the effect of different building designs on their energy consumption. This paper presents the experimental and theoretical variations of electric power consumed by an A/C system. For the experimental part, a building has been chosen, and different sensors were installed to measure and record electric kW consumption at different indoor and outdoor conditions. In the theoretical part, the Visual DOE simulation program, which is based on the well known DOE2E program, has been used. Actual building data was fed to the program to generate the instantaneous electric consumption due to A/C cooling load. Comparison between measured and predicted electric consumptions is presented.

Variable air volume ventilation control strategies analysed in six climate zones

This paper presents eight ventilation control strategies and their annual energy and indoor air quality simulation results for an academic building as if it were situated in each of six geographic locations. The results show that without tempering at the terminal boxes, no ventilation strategy could satisfy the outdoor air requirements when the thermal loads are low. The fixed outdoor air percentage method is the worst one. From an economic perspective, strategies using optimization techniques minimize the operating energy demand and consumption. Supply air temperature (SAT) and primary airflow rate are the two proper optimization parameters on the air side of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning systems. In addition to control strategies, geographic locations or weather patterns influence the benefits of optimization. Generally, a mild-dry climate intensifies the advantages of the SAT reset and encourages the primary airflow optimization. Inversely, hot-humid weather minimizes the benefits. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Measurement of climatic heat stress at outdoor venues for endurance events at the Atlanta Olympic Games, 1996

During the 1996 Atlanta Olympic Games, climatic heat stress measurements were made at four sport venues: athletics, beach volleyball, modern pentathlon, and tennis. The known potentially adverse effects of climatic heat stress (high temperature, humidity, and radiant energy) on athletic performance, coupled with Atlanta's history of abnormally hot humid weather during the proposed Games period, indicated the need for such documentation as part of ongoing Games preparation. Commercially available instrumentation was used to measure dry bulb temperature (DBT), wet bulb temperature (WBT), and black bulb globe temperature (BGT). From these values, the Heat Stress Index (HSI) temperature was calculated. Data were collected at 10‐min intervals for an extended time period at various competition sites at a time when athletes were competing during the Games. These data provide a perspective on: 1. how Atlanta's 1996 weather compared with preceding years, and with that of Barcelona in 1992; 2. the incidence of heat stress medical emergencies among competing athletes and 3. the value of the HSI concept for evaluating environmental influences on sport competition.