Hot Calcium Chloride Research Articles

Assessing Suitability of Different Extractants for Estimating Plant Available Boron in Lateritic Soils (Alfisols)

ABSTRACT The depth-wise distribution of plant available boron (B) extracted by dilute HCl (HCl), tartaric acid (TA), hot calcium chloride (HCC), hot water (HW), ammonium acetate (AA), Ammonium Bicarbonate-Diethylene Triamine Penta Acetic acid (AB-DTPA) and mannitol calcium chloride (MCC) in some acidic lateritic soils (Alfisols) of Birbhum, West Bengal, India, was examined in relation to their physicochemical properties and grain yield, concentration and removal of B by rice grain to screen out the most suitable extractant for lateritic soils. The highest overall mean B concentration of surface soils (0.325 mg kg−1) was obtained by 0.05 M HCl, whereas its lowest content was obtained by MCC (0.145 mg kg−1) and with increasing depth its content was decreased for all the extractants used. The sequence of B extraction by various extractants was as follows: HCl > TA > HCC > HW > AA > AB-DTPA > MCC. Higher extractability of HCl is due to lower pH and attendant dissolution of soil minerals. Most often, decrease in organic carbon, clay, CEC, amorphous iron and aluminum oxides or increase in manganese oxide contributed to the observed drop in B along soil depth. The B extracted by different extractants showed significant positive correlations among themselves. The HCl extracted B showed the highest correlation with grain yield, concentration, and removal of B by rice grain. The HCl extractable B enhanced adjusted R2 value in multiple regression equation, boosting the predictability of the model. Thus, in acidic lateritic soils (Alfisols), the 0.05 M HCl is the best extract for estimating plant available B.

Boron fractions and its availability in soils of the Indo-Gangetic plains

We studied relationships between available B and different fractions of B in soils, and how soil properties, climatic parameters, and cropping systems influenced their contents in soils of the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP). Available B in soils was assessed by four methods viz., hot-calcium chloride (HCC), mannitol-calcium chloride (MCC), hydrochloric acid (HCl) and salicylic acid (SA). Soil B was also separated into five fractions viz., readily soluble B (RSB), specifically adsorbed B (SAB), organically bound B (OrB), oxides bound B (OxB) and residual B (RB). On average, a higher amount of available B was found in soils of the upper and trans region of IGP dominated by illitic minerals compared with a lower amount in the lower region dominated by kaolinitic one. Among the fractions, RB constituted ∼ 89 % of the total, followed by OxB(6.11 %) > OrgB (5.32 %) ≫ SAB (0.46 %) > RSB (0.26 %). Variations in the amount of available B, and its fractions in soils were explained on the basis of variations in soil properties and climatic parameters. For example, most of the fractions of B (SAB, OrgB and OxB) along with its available amount decreased with increasing soil depth due to declining contents of organic C and amorphous Fe- and Al-oxides. Soil properties explained 51–76 % variability in available B, and 27–65 % in different B fractions. Rice-based cropping systems mobilized RB to available (RSB and SAB) and potentially available (OxB and OrgB) fractions. Among the methods used, HCC and MCC were found suitable for assessing available B status in the soils. The study thus explained variations in B availability in rice and non-rice-based cropping systems, predicted its availability, and also identified suitable method(s) for its estimation in soils of the IGP for a better B management.

A Low-Cost Assembly for Extraction of Hot Calcium Chloride Extractable Boron from Soil Samples

Among micronutrients, boron (B) occupies a prime place next to zinc (Zn) in Indian Agriculture. Acidic soils, coarse-textured soils subjected to leaching in high rainfall areas, and calcareous soils are likely to be deficient in B (Srivastava and Gupta 1996). According to an estimate based on soil testing of more than two lakh samples drawn from 508 districts of India indicated that 23.2 percent of soil samples are deficient in B (Shukla et al. 2019). Though there are several methods for the analysis of B in soils yet hot water-soluble B (Berger and Truog 1940; Gupta 1967) or dilute CaCl2 extractable B (Cartwright et al. 1983; Adams et al. 1991) are widely adopted for different soils all over the World (Diana 2008). The assembly adopted for the extraction of hot water soluble or dilute CaCl2 extractable B is costly as it requires the use of low B glass or quartz boiling flask equipped with a condenser tube for refluxing (Parker and Gardner 1981) which generally poses difficulty in handling and maintenance. Schuppli (1986) used a Teflon Erlenmeyer flask (125 ml) capacity attached to a Teflon reflux condenser to extract hot water-soluble B from soils, and an asbestos mat was placed between the hot plate and the flask to prevent damage to the Teflon flask. This publication proposes a low-cost assembly to extract hot water-soluble or hot CaCl2 extractable B in soils.

Critical limit of boron for maize (Zea mays L.) in red and lateritic soil of Jharkhand, India

ABSTRACT To establish a critical limit in soils and plant, an experiment was conducted in red and lateritic soil (Alfisols) of farmer’s field in tribal-dominated Panchayat Kurum, Palkot block, Gumla district, Jharkhand, India. Based on the results of the field experiment, the critical limits were determined as 0.48, 0.50, 0.47, and 0.42 mg kg−1 in the soil, respectively, for hot water, hot calcium chloride, salicylic acid, and ammonium acetate-extractable B, while a critical limit of 12.00 mg kg−1 was observed in maize tissue using the graphical method. In an analysis of variance method, the critical limits of B in soils were found as 0.45, 0.54, 0.49, and 0.43 mg kg−1 using hot water, hot calcium chloride, salicylic acid, and ammonium acetate extractants, respectively. Maize plants were highly responsive to B application where soil B level was below the critical limit (0.50 mg kg−1). In a field experiment, grain yield of maize increased with increasing levels of B application, while soil application at 1.0 kg ha−1 + two foliar application (at the knee and pre-flowering stages) of borax at 0.2% were showed significantly higher grain yield of the maize crop. The hot water, hot calcium chloride, salicylic acid, and ammonium acetate-extractable B were significantly and positively correlated with organic carbon and negatively correlated with the electrical conductivity of soils. Abbreviations AA: Ammonium Acetate; AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer; ACZ: Agro Climatic Zone; B: Boron; Ca: Calcium; cmol(p+) kg–1: Centimole (+) per Kilogram; Cu: Copper; DAS: Days After Sowing; dS m–1: DeciSiemens per Meter; DTPA: Diethylene Triamine Pentaacetic Acid; EC: Electrical Conductivity; Fe: Iron; HW: Hot Water; mg kg–1: Milligram per Kilogram; Mg: Magnesium; Mn: Manganese; OC: Organic Carbon; q ha–1: Quintal per Hectare

Determining critical limit of boron in soil for wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)

Critical values of boron (B) for wheat nutrition in soil and plant were determined through a pot experiment with twenty-one surface soils of Alluvial flood plain and Red-latertic belt comprising three major soil orders (Entisols, Alfisols, Inceptisols) with four levels of boron. Application of boron significantly increased the dry matter yield as well as uptake of B by plants. Critical concentration of hot calcium chloride (CaCl2) extractable B in soil for wheat was found to be 0.53 mg kg−1. The critical plant B concentration varied with growth stages and values were 7.4 mg kg−1 at panicle initiation and 4.18 mg kg−1 at maturity, respectively. The findings of this investigation also recommend the application of 2 kg B−1 ha−1 for ensuring B sufficiency to wheat in Indo-gangetic alluvial and Red-Lateritic soils.

Effect of Hot Calcium Chloride and Acetic Acid Solutions or Hot Water Treatments on Inhibition of Total Microbial Counts and Browning in Lettuce Stem Cut During Cold Storage

Heads of iceberg lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Iceberg) were harvested at the proper stage of maturity from Kaha Experimental Farm, Qalubia Governorate, Egypt, during two successive seasons in 2015 and 2016. Good heads were transported immediately to the laboratory of Handling of Vegetable Crops Department Horticulture Research Institute at Giza. Egypt. All leaves were removed and stems were cut by a sharp knife into round slices (1 cm thickness × 2.5 diameter) then dipped for 1 min in the following solutions, hot CaCl23% or 5% at 50oC, hot acetic acid 1% or 3% at 50oC, CaCl23% or 5% at 20oC, acetic acid 1% or 3% at 20oC, hot water at 50oC and distilled water (control) to study the effect of these treatments on inhibition butt discoloration and microbial count of the stem cut lettuce during storage at 2±1 °C and 95 % relative humidity (RH) for 10 days. Results indicated that all studied treatments reduced browning index, Polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity, Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) activity, had lower level of microbial load and maintaining total phenolic contents of the stem cut lettuce during cold storage comparing with untreated control. Stem cut lettuce dipped in hot Calcium Chloride 5% solution showed a positive effect on enzymes related to color maintenance. It reduced the activity of the browning related enzymes polyphenol oxidase (PPO) and Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), maintained of total phenolic content, had the lowest total bacterial counts and inhibited browning on the cut surface of lettuce stem during storage at 2±1 °C and 95 % relative humidity for 10 days.

Assessing suitability of different extractants for determining available boron in soil

ABSTRACTIn the present study, the extractability of available Boron (B) by different extractants was tested in relation to soil properties. Soil samples from different parts of Indo-Gangetic flood plains of West Bengal were collected and available B extracted with various extractant viz. hot calcium chloride (CaCl2) (HCC), Potassium di-hydrogen phosphate (PDP), tartaric acid (TA) and MCC. Plant availability of B was assessed by growing wheat (Triticum aestivum L.cv.K-1006) in such soils through pot experiments. HCC showed the highest available B content as well as highest correlation coefficient value with all plant growth parameters and soil properties. The B extracting efficiency of the tested extractants was found in the order of HCC > PDP > TA > MCC. Results showed that dry matter yield, plant B concentration and uptake was increased significantly after application of Borax. Linear Correlations, Multiple regression analysis using Mallow's Cp statistics proved HCC to be the best extractant for estimating available B in experimental soils.

Critical Levels of Boron in Soils for Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea Var. Botrytis)

Influence of boron (B) application to cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) was investigated in a pot experiment taking 15 Inceptisols with four levels of B. The critical levels of B for deficiency, adequacy and toxicity in soil and in cauliflower plant were also determined. Hot-calcium chloride (CaCl2) extractable B in these soils varied from 0.33 to 0.78 mg kg-1 and its content for deficiency to cauliflower was 0.48 mg kg-1. Boron application significantly increased cauliflower yield, plant B concentration and uptake of B. The critical plant B concentrations for deficiency, sufficiency and toxicity varied with the growth stages and the values being 26, 31 and 48 mg kg-1 at 50 days of growth and 17, 24 and 35.5 mg kg-1 at harvest, respectively. The study also recommends application of fertilizer B at the rate 0.9–4.5 kg ha-1 for optimum B nutrition to cauliflower in Inceptisols of the Gangetic plains of India.

Risks of Boron Toxicity in Canola and Lupin by Forms of Boron Application in Acid Sands of South-Western Australia

Boron (B) deficiency frequently occurs on soils that are low in organic carbon (C) (<1.0% organic C), pH (soil pHCa <5.0), and clay content (<5% clay). Acid sands with these soil properties are common in south-western Australia (SWA). Moreover, hot calcium chloride (CaCl2) extractable B levels are commonly marginal in the acid sands of SWA. This study examined the effects of soluble and slow release soil-applied B fertilizer and foliar B sprays on crops most likely to respond to B fertilizer on these soils, canola (oil-seed rape, Brassica napus L.) and lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.).At 25 sites over three years, canola was grown with (0.34 kg ha-1) or without B applied as borax [sodium tetraborate decahydrate (Na2B4O7·10H2O) 11% B], and this was followed by nine experiments with B rates [0, 0.55, 1.1 kg ha−1, applied as borax or calcium borate (ulexite, NaCaB5O6(OH)6·5(H2O), 13% B] and foliar sprays (0.1% solution of solubor, 23% B) in 2000–2001. A further five sites of B rates and sources experiments were carried out with lupin in 2000–2001. Finally, foliar B sprays (5% B w/v as a phenolic complex) at flowering were tested on seven sites in farmers’ canola crops for seed yield increases. No seed yield increases to soil-applied B were found while foliar B application at flowering increased canola seed yield in only one season across seven locations. By contrast, borax fertilizer drilled with the seed at sowing decreased canola seed yield in nine of 34-farm sites, and decreased lupin yield in two of five trials. Toxicity from drilled boron fertilizer decreased yield could be explained by decreases in plant density (by 22–40%) to values lower than required for optimum seed yield. Seedling emergence was decreased by borax applied at sowing but less so by calcium borate. Foliar B spray application never reduced seed yield due to toxicity effects.Boron fertilizer drilled with the seed increased the B concentration in plant dry matter at early to mid-flowering. Boron application decreased the oil concentration of grain of canola at four sites. The oil yield of canola was significantly decreased at seven sites.Notwithstanding the marginal B levels on acid sands of the SWA region, care needs to be taken on use of borax fertilizer as toxicity was induced in canola and lupin; with 0.34 to 1 kg B ha−1(3-10 kg borax ha−1) at sowing depressing seed yield, mostly by decreasing plant density. Rather than making general recommendation for B fertilizer application based on 0.01M CaCl2 soil extractable B, soil and plant analysis should be used to diagnose B deficiency and B fertilizer use limited to calcium borate or foliar borax rather than soil-applied borax on low B sands.

Soil Properties Influence Distribution of Extractable Boron in Soil Profile

Depth distribution of boron (B) extractable by hot calcium chloride (HCC), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (PDP), and tartaric acid (TA) in some typical B‐deficient Inceptisols, Entisols, and Alfisols in relation to soil properties was studied. The magnitude of B extraction followed the order HCC > PDP > TA for Inceptisols, TA > HCC > PDP for Entisols, and PDP > HCC > TA for Alfisols and showed a decrease along soil depth. The low pH of TA and effective desorption of B by phosphate of PDP are attributed to their higher efficiency in extracting B in Entisols and Alfisols, respectively. A decrease in organic carbon (C), clay, and amorphous iron oxide content was responsible for the observed decrease in extractable B along depth of soil profile. The HCC showed more efficiency than PDP and TA for extracting B in soils high in organic C. Multiple regression equations explained only 21, 57, and 59% of the variability in PDP‐, HCC‐, and TA‐extractable B content in soils by the soil properties analyzed, of which organic C and clay were the most important. There were dynamic equilibria among the amount of B extracted by the extractants, indicating B extraction by them from more or less similar pools in the soils.

Corrosion Resistances of Iron-Based Amorphous Metals with Yttrium and Tungsten Additions in Hot Calcium Chloride Brine & Natural Seawater: Fe48Mo14Cr15Y2C15B6 and W-Containing Variants

Yttrium-containing SAM1651 (Fe48.0Cr15.0Mo14.0B6.0C15.0Y2.0), has a critical cooling rate (CCR) of approximately 80 Kelvin per second, while SAM2X5 (Fe49.7Cr17.7Mn1.9Mo7.4W1.6B15.2C3.8Si2.4) with no yttrium has a higher critical cooling rate of approximately 600 Kelvin per second. SAM1651's low CCR enables it to be rendered as a completely amorphous material in practical materials processes. Chromium (Cr), molybdenum (Mo) and tungsten (W) provide corrosion resistance; boron (B) enables glass formation; and rare earths such as yttrium (Y) lower critical cooling rate (CCR). The passive film stability of these Fe- based amorphous metal formulations have been found to be superior to that of conventional stainless steels, and comparable to that of Ni-based alloys, based on electrochemical measurements of the passive film breakdown potential and general corrosion rates.

Corrosion Resistances of Iron-Based Amorphous Metals with Yttrium and Tungsten Additions in Hot Calcium Chloride Brine

not Available.

DEPTHWISE DISTRIBUTION OF EXTRACTABLE BORON IN SOME ACIDIC INCEPTISOLS OF INDIA

We studied depthwise distribution of B extractable by tartaric acid (TA), ammonium acetate (AA), mannitol calcium chloride (MCC) and hot calcium chloride (HCC) in some acidic Inceptisols of West Bengal. The magnitude of B extraction follows: TA > HCC > AA > MCC and showed a decrease with an increase in soil depth. The highest value (with TA) is related to its ability for complexation with boric acid and maintenance of a low soil extract pH, while the lowest value (with MCC) is explained by the unlikely possibility of the presence of B as borate at acidic pH and, thus, the formation of B-mannitol complex. The decrease in extractable B with soil depth is attributed to the decrease in organic C and the increase in the Fe- and Mn-oxide content of the soils. Implications of the influences of soil properties on the extractable B content of soils are discussed.

Methods of heating the concrete for grouting the joints of the dam at the Zeya hydroelectric station

1. The electrical heating system of a joint with embedded electrodes, being technologically efficient in assembly and reliable in heating the zone of the joint being grouted, proved to be unconditionally preferable to the system of heating by tubular electric heaters through boreholes. All tests of systems of embedded electrodes were favorable and all sections were grouted successfully. 2. The experience of heating concrete by steam through a coil specially installed in a section showed the effectiveness of this method (with simpler installation of its components in comparison with the electrical heating system). It is necessary to continue work on the use of this method. Steam heating of concrete through boreholes is ineffective and requires large labor expenditures. 3. The method of heating concrete by injection of hot calcium chloride brine can be used only if the grouting system and joint are open and the section airtight. It should be carried out as an auxiliary measure during hydraulic testing and grouting after heating the concrete by either of the two other methods named above. 4. It is not advisable to use a system of regrouting with valve-type outlets if the concrete is frozen: First, grouting of frozen concrete is carried out at the maximum openings of the joint, which precludes additional opening during the operational period; second, the multiple-acting valves themselves can become clogged with salt during passage of hot brine through them.

POLARIMETRIC DETERMINATION OF STARCH IN CEREAL PRODUCTS: IV. CRITICAL STUDIES OF METHODS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF STARCH IN WHOLE WHEAT, GRANULAR, AND PATENT FLOURS

A rapid polarimetric method applicable to whole wheat, granular, and patent flour is described in which the starch is dissolved in hot calcium chloride solution under uniform conditions, soluble proteins being removed by the addition of stannic chloride or uranyl acetate prior to volume adjustment, filtration, and polarization.Approximately 2.5-gm. samples (40 mesh) are placed in tall beakers and suspended uniformly in 10 cc. of water. Calcium chloride solution (60 cc., d. 1.30, pH 5.5) and 2 cc. of 0.8% acetic acid are added. The mixture is boiled at constant salt concentration for 15 min., foaming being prevented by dropwise addition of n-octanol as required. After cooling, 2.5 to 5.0 cc. of 4% stannic chloride or 10 cc. of 5% uranyl acetate (each dissolved in calcium chloride solution) is added, the mixture is diluted to 100 cc. with calcium chloride solution, mixed, and filtered. After discarding the first portion, the filtrate is polarized in 2 dm. tubes. [α]D = + 203° is used in the calculations; % starch = 2 dm. reading in degrees × 10 when 2.463 gm. flour samples are employed.Stannic chloride is shown to depress the specific rotation value of starches. A large error is introduced when it is used on wheat flour in the amount prescribed by Mannich and Lenz. Using the above uranyl acetate treatment, starch may be rapidly determined in corn, barley, rye, rice, grain sorghum, and buckwheat by the calcium chloride polarimetric method. It is shown that interfering wheat proteins may be removed by preparatory extraction with aqueous ethanol and dilute sodium hydroxide, as well as by precipitation. The latter being more rapid is judged most suitable for routine applications. Levorotatory hemicelluloses of bran and endosperm are dissolved in considerable amount by boiling calcium chloride solution but their small effect is balanced by the error of overestimation arising from insoluble wheat solids. Hemicelluloses are shown to be capable of causing high results in applications of the diastase–hydrochloric-acid method to wheat products. The improved calcium chloride polarimetric method is considered the most reliable of existing macro-methods for the determination of starch in wheat.