Horse Skulls Research Articles

Craniometric values of the domestic horse (Equus caballus) in the context of mechanical stunning anatomy – preliminary studies

Abstract This study presents selected craniometric measurements compared to the thickness of the frontal bone of the domestic horse. The study was carried out on 10 domestic horse skulls from the collection of the Institute of Veterinary Medicine at Nicolaus Copernicus University in Torun. On the basis of the results obtained, correlation was carried out according to Pearson’s method, and a trend graph was created, showing the relationship of individual values to frontal bone thickness. The present research is a preliminary study, and further research, based on a larger study group, can help minimize their suffering. According to the study, the greatest positive correlation and relationship is shown by the length between the alveolar borders of the third incisor, while a negative correlation was found for the width of the cerebrocranium. In the future, it is possible to develop a formula to estimate the thickness of the frontal bone in horses.

Horse skulls revisited. Analyses of selected deposits from the territory of Poland

The article presents results of the most recent study on three assemblages of horse skulls and bones presented in older publications as early medieval deposits. In the course of the project “Horse in Poland in the Times of the Early Piasts and Internal Fragmentation. AnInterdisciplinaryStudy”, they were subjected to multifaceted archaeozoological analyses as well as AMS carbon-14 dating. Owing to the findings of these analyses along with a critical culture-related assessment of the earlier interpretations, the custom of using horse skulls for magical rituals in the Late Medieval and in modern times. The custom from the pagan era was still practiced in folklore culture and its magical, non-Christian manifestations. The presented results show that dating animal deposits using the AMS carbon-14 method is necessary whenever they become an element of a qualitative-cultural interpretation. They are also an example of merging methods and findings from different specialties in interpreting zoological deposits resulting from human activity. Moreover, the considerations contained in this paper suggest also that there is a need for reinterpreting theses that have been long in use in the subject literature.

Horses in the Early Medieval (10th-13th c.) Religious Rituals of Slavs in Polish Areas-An Archaeozoological, Archaeological and Historical Overview.

Simple SummaryThe military and prestigious importance of the horse as a cavalry mount (hussars and lancers) in post-medieval Poland has been well recorded in the pages of chronicles and historical records. However, information about the horse from Poland’s earliest Slavic history (10th–13th century) is very modest and can be found in few written sources. Therefore, to change this state of knowledge, data from archaeozoological and archaeological research were used to complement the information from chronicles. This was undertaken as part of a project focusing on the early medieval period. This article presents issues related to the role of the horse in religious rituals. This is discussed through a presentation of older and current views resulting from new research. The article presents and discusses textual and archaeological data supported by archaeozoological sources. The horse is known to be a military, elite and magical animal but also as the source of meat for food and bones for the manufacture of items. Although there is no doubt of treatment of the horse as a magical animal among the Slavs in Poland, it is clear that this animal was not buried in cemeteries in separate graves or with riders, as seen amongst contemporary neighbouring tribes.Knowledge about horses from early medieval (10th–13th c.) Poland has been largely based on historical and archaeological data. Archaeozoological information has only been used to a limited extent. Therefore, this article aims to present the current state of knowledge on this subject, drawing on archaeozoological data from studies of horse bones. Apart from confirming earlier reflections regarding the sacred significance of the horse, additional information was obtained about specific individuals who were the subject of magical treatments. It turned out that sites with horse skeletons and skulls are few compared to the familiar presence of horse remains among kitchen waste. This contrasts with the neighbouring regions, where horses were buried more frequently among the Germans, Scandinavians and Prussians. Some new data have been obtained thanks to taphonomic analyses, which demonstrated that horse skulls of apotropaic status were not only exposed to public viewing but were also deposited under stronghold ramparts. Horses suffering from infectious diseases could also be buried under such ramparts. Considerations in the article lead to conclusions that horses were used in religious rituals as sacrificial animals, apotropaic deposits, as fortune-telling animals and cosmological figures.

Supernatural Defenses Activated through Death

ABSTRACT Objects such as concealed shoes, dried cats, horse skulls, written charms, and witch bottles have been found in thousands of buildings in Britain and elsewhere in the world with the clear aim of protecting the occupants of the building from sources of supernatural evil. There are also an array of marks that have been made on surfaces designed to ward off evil influences. Generally speaking, these objects contain an element of breakage or death before they can be used to protect against magical forces, arguably this is also true where the surface structure is broken to make a mark. Despite the large numbers of these objects and marks that exist, there is rarely any inclusion of them in works about the history of witchcraft. This paper is an exploration of the different objects and marks that were used for this purpose.

Withers height estimation in medieval horse samples from Poland: Comparing the internal cranial cavity‐based modified Wyrost and Kucharczyk method with existing methods

AbstractHorse withers height is frequently estimated based on skeletal remains during archeozoological analyses. The routinely used methods (Vitt and Kiesewalter) do not allow withers height estimation without complete long bone and skull osteometry. The modified Wyrost and Kucharczyk formula is based on the internal dimensions of the cranial cavity. This method can be used even when the neurocranium is the only surviving portion of the skull. Earlier investigation demonstrated that it can be used as a substitute for the Kiesewalter method. The statistical analyses of the results achieved using metapodial bones are strongly correlated with the results achieved using the Wyrost and Kucharczyk method. A unique horse skull assemblage, dating back to medieval times, was unearthed from several archeological sites in Poland (Silesia, Kuyavia, Grater Poland, Western Pomerania, and Eastern Pomerania). This study aimed to estimate the withers height of this assemblage using the modified Wyrost and Kucharczyk method. Subsequently, these estimations were compared with accessible literature data from both medieval Poland and surrounding territories. The literature indicates that the horses from Western Pomerania, Silesia, and Kuyavia were larger than the animals from Eastern Pomerania. Our results show that horses from Western Pomerania were larger than those from Silesia, Kuyavia, and Eastern Pomerania. In both cases, the Western Pomeranian horses are the largest. In general, according to our results and the accessible literature, it seems true that Polish medieval horse populations can be described as medium‐ and small‐sized, according to Vitt's classification. The modified Wyrost and Kucharczyk formula can be used as an additional or alternative method of calculating withers height in routine archeozoological studies.

Элитное погребение золотоордынской эпохи в Самарском Поволжье: человек, лошади и культовый комплекс

The article presents some preliminary results of a comprehensive study of a unique archaeological site of the Golden Horde time — a single burial mound Svetloe Pole III, excavated in the Samara region in 2020. In the only burial, despite the destruction, extraordinary objects have been preserved: a massive (gilded) bronze belt overlay with the image of a dragon, a horn pommel depicting a bird of prey gnawing at a large bird — possibly a bustard; gold earrings and stripes into clothes, coins, iron arrowheads (some of them gilded), etc. The sub-kurgan area was surrounded by a wooden ring structure 15 m in diameter, on the eastern side of which there was a sacrificial complex with 14 skulls of horses without lower jaws. The anthropological study showed that the buried man, 50—60 years old, of the Mongoloid anthropological type, had numerous pathologies. Interesting paleozoological observations were made when analyzing bone remains of the animals found not only on the sacrificial site, but also in the filling of the mound.

No modularity at ventral level in the horse skull.

Morphological integration and modularity are concepts that refer to the covariation level between the components of a structure. Morphological modules are independent subsets of highly correlated traits. The horse skull has been studied as a whole functional structure for decades, but the integrative approach towards quantitative examination of modules is scarce. We report here the first evaluation of cranial modularity in the horse at basal level. For this, we studied the modularity hypothesis for splanchnocranium and basicranium modules in the horse, two phenotipic regions under local influence by soft-tissue-hard-tissue interfaces. Using geometric morphometrics to capture the shape and location, we examined both modules in a sample of 23 dry skulls belonging to Pyrenean Horse Breed using 57 two-dimensional cranial landmarks. Modules were compared through partial least squares analyses and Escoufier (RV) coefficient. We tested whether the integration (measured by Escoufier RV coefficient) of splanchnocranium and basicranium strength modules and their covariation pattern (as analysed by partial least squares analysis) subordinate and express similar integration results. A clear modularity was observed. The lack of disproportions in the skulls of domestic horse breeds (compared to dog and cat breeds, for instance) might be an expression of the lack of single modules to evolve. On the other side, integration might have a positive impact on survival as long as the selection pressure is along the trajectory of integrated variation.

Unicorn “holotype” skeleton from the Late Pleistocene spotted hyena den site Sewecken‐Berge (Germany)

AbstractLate Pleistocene Ice Age spotted hyena remains are described from the “Unicorn holotype skeleton” gypsum karst site Quedlinburg‐Sewecken‐Berge, Germany (Central Europe). The hyena population consists of adolescent to late adult individuals (96% of hyena NISP; 15% of megafauna NISP) indicating a commuting den site type. The comparisons to other European bone assemblages support hunting specialization on woolly rhinoceros (19% of NISP) and horses (27% of NISP). Specialization on bovids (Bison/Bos) can be added for this site. The megafauna contain few Eemian warm period remains of a large horse Equus ferus fossilis. Most (95%) of the megafauna is attributed to the Late Pleistocene glacial (Weichselian/Wuermian). Horse bones are dominated by distal leg elements from the smaller Przewalski horses Equus ferus przewalskii (26% of NISP). The Unicorn “holotype” skeleton originates from a composed horse skull, vertebrae and front legs, whereas the elephant remains added to this biologically not valid species must have been a straight‐tusked elephant tusk.

Flying Daggers, Horse Whisperers and a Midwinter Sacrifice: Creating the Past during the Viking Age and Early Middle Ages

This paper sets out to trace the life history of a horse skull found in a bog in Scania in the year 1900. A parallel is drawn between the find of the horse and the famous painting, "Midwinter Sacrifice" by Carl Larsson. The story of the horse has opened up a discussion on how material culture is created and recreated in time and space, resulting in completely new communicative fields. The manifestation of the past and the reuse of Stone Age places and artefacts are brought into focus when the author discusses the location where the horse skull was originally found.

The presence of Wormian bones increases the fracture resistance of equine cranial bone.

Wormian (intrasutural) bones are small, irregular bones, that are found in the cranial sutures of the skull. The occurrence of Wormian bones in human skulls has been well documented but few studies have detected the presence of such bones in domestic animals. Although some research has linked the presence of Wormian bones to bone pathology, its anatomical significance in healthy individuals is not known. To the best of our knowledge, no previous study has examined the biomechanical features of Wormian bone. This study uses microCT imaging of the parietal bone region to determine the frequency of occurrence of Wormian bones in horse skulls and, through 3-point bending tests, to calculate the mechanical differences that result from the presence of such bones. In addition, bone properties such as bone mineral density (BMD) and stiffness were measured and analysed to determine the influence of Wormian bone. Our findings on 54 specimens taken from 10 horses (ages ranging from 4 to 29 years) showed that Wormian bone was present in 70% of subjects and that its occurrence was unrelated to age or sex. 3-point bend tests revealed that the stiffness normalised by cross section area (P = 0.038) was lower in samples where Wormian bone was present. An idealised Finite Element simulation confirmed that the presence of Wormian bone reduced the maximum stress and strain, as well as their distribution throughout the sample. We consequently conclude that the presence of Wormian bones, which are confined to the calvaria, increase the compliance of the bone and reduce the likelihood of skull fracture. As all skull samples were collected from a local abattoir, ethical approval was not required for this work.

Непотревоженное погребение культуры плиточных могил с черепом лошади в Северной Монголии

The article presents detailed results of archaeological excavations carried out on the territory of Northern Mongolia in the valley of the Egiin-gol river. Under one of the stone layouts at the Kharuulyn Gozgor site there was an undisturbed human burial which belongs to the culture of slab graves. A feature of this object is the presence of a horse skull and other animal bones. Special attention was paid to the study of the osteological remains of the horse since such finds are quite rare. On the basis of archaeozoological determinations, it was concluded that the grave contained the skull and lower jaw of a stallion aged 12–15 years old and some bones of its forelimbs. The notice was made of the injuries to the parietal and frontal bones obtained during the killing of the horse which judging by the given morphometric parameters was not large. The skull and individual bones of a young sheep were also found. The obtained osteological materials are important for carrying out paleogenetic studies. Key words: Northern Mongolia, culture of slab graves, archaeological excavations, human burial, horse skull, sheep bones, archaeozoological definitions Acknowledgments: Field research was carried out within the framework of the international program of the St. Petersburg State Budgetary Institution of Culture “Museum-Institute of the Roerich Family” (Russia) and during the archaeological practice of students of Ulaanbaatar University (Mongolia). Analytical work and writing of the article were carried out with partial financial support from the Russian Foundation for Basic Research (project No. 19–59–15001 “Horses and Their Importance in the Life of the Ancient Population of Altai and Adjacent Territories: Interdisciplinary Research and Reconstruction”).

Maxillary Incisors of the Horse before and at the Beginning of the Teeth Shedding: Radiographic and CT Study.

Simple SummaryAlthough much is known about equine dentistry, there is a period of the horse’s life, prior to teeth shedding, in which there is lack of knowledge related to the development of deciduous incisors and dental germs of permanent incisors. To gain insight into the radiographic appearance of maxillary deciduous incisors and dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors during this period, a radiographic and computed tomography study of 25 horse skulls was made. Data regarding morphology and development were obtained. The results of the present study indicate that radiographic intraoral images are suitable to identify the grade of development of the dental germs of permanent incisors in horses before dental change. A detailed description of the radiographic appearance of deciduous incisors and dental germs of permanent incisors will help clinicians to expand their knowledge for diagnostic and treatment purposes.To gain insight into the radiographic appearance of maxillary deciduous incisors and dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors in the period prior to teeth shedding, radiographs and computed tomography (CT) of 25 horse skulls, with an estimated age of between 12 and 42 months, were studied. Data regarding morphology and development were obtained. Dental germs of first maxillary permanent incisors were identified radiographically as rounded radiolucent areas at the level of the apical parts of the first deciduous incisors, in skulls with an estimated age of twelve months. The first sign of crown mineralization of these dental germs appeared in skulls supposedly a few months older. Before teeth shedding, the unerupted, mineralized crowns of the first permanent incisor could be identified radiographically relatively caudal to the corresponding first deciduous incisors. The results of the present study indicate that radiographic intraoral images are suitable to identify the grade of development of the dental germs of maxillary permanent incisors. A detailed description of the radiographic appearance of deciduous incisors and dental germs of permanent incisors will help clinicians to expand their knowledge for diagnostic or treatment purposes.

Animal bones in old graves: a zooarchaeological and contextual study on faunal remains and new dated evidence for the ritual re-use of old cemetery sites in Southern and Western Finland

Animal remains from twelve Iron Age (ca. 500 BC–1200/1300AD) sites from Southern and Western Finland, showing a mixture of finds and features typical of both settlement sites and cemeteries, were investigated using a zooarchaeological, taphonomic and contextual approach. Rarefaction analysis of the species richness and anatomical distribution indicates that the samples included both general domestic waste type and species and element-selective deposits of cattle and horse skulls, mandibles and limb bones. According to radiocarbon dating results, there seems to be a gap between the dates of burials and those of other ritual activities, indicating that the context of such deposits is a disused cemetery. The faunal deposits could represent remembrance rituals or relate to votive offerings intended to ensure healthy or productive livestock, a practice described in later ethnographic sources. These deposits seem to be in use within a large geographical area over a long period, and some aspects of this belief system may even have survived into the Christianisation of society in the historical period.

The use of the geometric morphometric method to illustrate shape difference in the skulls of different-aged horses

The geometric morphometrics method (GMM) is a technique to study scale and shape relationships of structures using Cartesian geometric coordinates rather than linear, areal (of area), or volumetric variables. GMM has been of great value in many biological studies, but does not appear to have been used to examine equine skulls.In this exploratory study, twenty-nine normal equine heads of three different age groups: <5 years old (N = 9), 6–15 years old (N = 10) and > 16 years old (N = 10) were examined.Computed tomography (CT) bone window DICOM images were reconstructed into isosurfaces (3-dimensional contoured surfaces), onto which landmarks were added using Stratovan Checkpoint® software. Data from 29 landmarks were analysed using MorphoJ analysis, which applies a Procrustes fit, prior to reducing data dimensionality through principal component (PC) analysis. PCs with and without allometry were considered. Allometric shape described by PC1 accounted for 27% of variance. Loading pertaining to: the pterygoid process, bilaterally; caudal aspect of hard palate; tip of nasal bone; ethmoid sinuses, bilaterally; caudal aspect of the ventral conchal bulla, bilaterally and caudal aspect of the vomer bone suggest that these anatomical structures are predictive of age group. When allometric effects (shape variation explained by size) were removed, PC1 was unable to distinguish horses by age group. Allometric shape differences could distinguish the youngest versus the two older age groups. The potential applications of GMM in equine diagnostic imaging are wide ranging and include the investigation of changes in the equine skull with respect to genetics and characterisation of conformation-related diseases affecting the teeth, jaws and sinonasal compartments.

Why the long face? Comparative shape analysis of miniature, pony, and other horse skulls reveals changes in ontogenetic growth.

BackgroundMuch of the shape variation found in animals is based on allometry and heterochrony. Horses represent an excellent model to investigate patterns of size-shape variation among breeds that were intentionally bred for extreme small and large sizes.MethodsWe tested whether ponies (wither height < 148 cm) have a diverging size-shape relationship in skull shape as compared to regular-sized horse breeds (wither height > 148 cm, here-after called horses) during ontogenetic growth. We used a dataset of 194 specimens from 25 horse and 13 pony breeds, two of which are miniature breeds (wither height < 96.5 cm)—Falabella, Shetland. We applied three-dimensional geometric morphometrics, linear measurements, and multivariate analyses (Procrustes ANOVAs) to quantitatively examine and compare the ontogenetic trajectories between pony and horse breeds with an emphasis on the miniature breeds as an extreme case of artificial selection on size. Additionally, we tested for juvenile characteristics in adult horse and miniature breeds that could resemble “paedomorphosis”—retention of juvenile characteristics in adult stage; e.g. large eyes, large braincase-to-face-relationship, and large head-to-body relationship.ResultsAllometric regression of size on shape revealed that 42% of shape variation could be explained by variation in size in all breeds. The ontogenetic trajectories of ponies and horses vary in slope and therefore in rate of change per unit size, and length. The differences in trajectory lengths and slopes result in ponies having a similar skull shape in an older age stage than horses of the same size in a younger age stage. This pattern could cause the generally perceived “paedomorphic” appearance of ponies. Miniature breeds have larger heads in relation to wither height compared to horses, a non-paedomorphic feature in horses specifically. Also, rostra (faces) are longer in adult individuals than in juveniles across all kinds of breeds. This pattern can be explained by the long-face hypothesis for grazing ungulates and could possibly be caused by the mismatch of selection by humans for shorter rostra and the dentition of ruminants.ConclusionsMiniature breed specimens do not exhibit any of the classical mammalian “paedomorphic” features (large orbits, large heads), except for the adult Falabella that has enlarged orbits, possibly because they are herbivorous ungulates that are affected by functional and metabolic constraints related to low nutrient-food consumption. Instead ponies, including miniature breeds, have faster and shorter ontogenetic growth compared to horses, resulting in adult pony skulls looking in part like juvenile horse skulls.

THE ELITE GRAVE OF THE WARRIOR OF THE PRE-SCYTHIAN AGE NEAR MAIKOP

The Ulka I cemetery was discovered on the site of the ancient Ulka settlement during rescue excavations conducted by A. V. Surkov in 2017. It is located 5.4 km northeast of Maykop (Adygea, RF). A total of four Proto-Maeotian burials were uncovered in these burial grounds. This article focuses on the wealthiest burial 3, which contained the remains of a warrior flanked by two horse skulls to the south — apparently in imitation of a cart or chariot. The burial inventory consisted of a long bimetallic sword with a length of 108 cm, a spearhead, a quiver with nine bronze arrows, gold and silver pendants of the «Šarengrad» type, gold-plated bronze buttons and various other items. Ananalysis of the funeral inventory shows that the main items belong to the Chernogorovka or Pre-Novocherkassk category of Proto-Maeotian material. However, the burial also contains later chronological indicators, e. g. arrowheads of the «Novocherkassk type» and aclasp of the «Slobodzeya» type. In general, it is possible to suggest a dating within the second half of the 8th century BC for the complex. The burial inventory indicates that the deceased belonged to the highest military elite of Proto-Maeotian society. He probably took part in military campaigns in the Trans-Caucasus, owned multiple herds of horses, and oversawtransactions and exchange with the elite of Central Europe.

Preliminary investigation into relationships between donkey and horse skull and brain morphology

Preliminary investigation into relationships between donkey and horse skull and brain morphology

Shape variation and modularity of skull and teeth in domesticated horses and wild equids

BackgroundIn horses, the morphological changes induced by the process of domestication are reportedly less pronounced than in other species, such as dogs or pigs – although the horses’ disparity has rarely been empirically tested. We investigated shape differences and modularity of domesticated horses, Przewalski’s horses, donkeys and zebras. Mandibular and tooth shape have been shown to be valuable features for differentiating wild and domesticated forms in some mammals.ResultsBoth mandible and teeth, show a pattern of shape space occupation analogous to that of the cranium, with domesticated horses occupying a similar extension in shape space to that of wild equids. Only cranial shape data exhibit a tendency to separate domesticated horses and Przewalski’s horses from donkeys and zebras. Maximum likelihood model-based tests confirm the horse cranium is composed of six developmental modules, as reported for placental mammals in general. The magnitude of integration in domesticated horse skull was lower than in wild equids across all six cranial modules, and lower values of integration were associated with higher disparity values across all modules.ConclusionThis is the first study that combines different skeletal features for the description and comparison of shape changes in all living equid groups using geometric morphometrics. We support Darwin’s hypothesis that the shape variation in the skull of domesticated horses is similar to the shape variation of all wild equid species existing today. Lower magnitudes of module integration are recovered in domesticated horses compared to their wild relatives.

The skull on the hill. Anthropological and osteological investigation of contemporary horse skull ritual practices in central Mongolia (Arkhangai province)

Among the five kinds of animals Mongolian herders breed (i.e. horses Equus caballus Linnaeus, 1758, camels Camelus bactrianus Linnaeus, 1758, cattle Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758, Bos grunniens Linnaeus, 1766, and their hybrids, sheep Ovis aries Linnaeus, 1758, and goats Capra hircus Linnaeus, 1758), the horse holds a particular status, perceivable in the slaughtering techniques used and the way its skull is treated after death. Leaving horse skulls in high places (i.e. trees, mountains, and ovoos − stone cairns erected in homage to the master spirits of a place) is a common, though poorly understood, practice. This article studies the modalities of these horse skull repositories within an interdisciplinary approach, combining social anthropology and osteology. The study of the choice of place for the skulls and their associated objects highlights the differentiation processes among the horses as individuals, in relation to their lifetime status. This relation between human and horses unfolds into the landscape, which is invested with numerous ovoo cairns and horse skulls; a reminder that these spaces are shared between humans, horses and invisible entities. In the absence of private land ownership on the Mongolian steppe and in the interest of a balanced coexistence with all the inhabitants of this shared land, we show that the horse skull repositories subtly combine honour to individual horses, respect to the master spirits of the land, and discrete appropriation of territory by herders.

ОБЗОР ЛИТЕРАТУРЫ ПО ВОПРОСУ О СТАНОВЛЕНИИ СКОТОВОДЧЕСКОГО ХОЗЯЙСТВА НА ТЕРРИТОРИИ ЗАПАДНО-СИБИРСКОЙ ЛЕСОСТЕПИ В ЭПОХУ ПОЗДНЕЙ БРОНЗЫ

The article deals with the history of development of livestock farming among the Irmen people in the Late Bronze Age. The authors’ analysis of a number of research works revealed that Irmen population had a pastoral type of economy with cattle prevailing in the livestock and a smaller proportion of horses and sheep. In addition, it was revealed that the main trend in the pastoral farming development was the formation of distant-pasture cattle rearing. The review of scientific studies showed that the Irmen people of the forest-steppe part of West Siberia had both summer and winter settlements and practiced winter cattle housing. Cattle grazing was conducted within floodplain valleys of large rivers, as well as on remote pasture fields. The conclusions about the use of horses primarily as riding and draft animals, as well as those about their specific ritual role in the Late Bronze Age are rather essential. A conclusion was drawn about individualization of horses’ burials in funeral complexes and connection between burials of horse skulls and certain buried subjects. As a rule, those are cases of men who acted as community leaders. Burials of such men usually marked a series of mounds within Irmen barrows. The rise of the tradition in the Irmen culture is explained in terms of the gradual increase of horses’ role in the economy of southern West Siberia. A hypothesis was also drawn according to which orientation of horse skulls to the northeast or southwest symbolized the rising of the sun in the northeast during the summer solstice and its setting in the southwest during the winter solstice. And the number of horse skulls in Irmen burial mounds symbolizes the number of months during which the sunrise and sunset points make significant shifts to the northeast and southwest respectively. Thus, horse skulls turned to the northeast symbolize the spring and summer months that “carry” the sun towards warmth and increasing daylight. The skulls turned the southwest, on the opposite, “carry” the fading sun towards the cold of winter. The mythological and calendar symbolism stems from the traditions of the early Andronovo sepulchral complexes with their southwestern orientation of buried horses (imitating a yoke) and those of Andronovo burials with the southwestern orientation of human remains. It was understood that the steady tradition of horse burials took shape in the livestock-raising communities of the steppe and forest-steppe zones of Eurasia. In terms of archaeology, the sources of the tradition are well fixed in Bronze Age artifacts and found interpretation in Indo-European rituals. The privileged position of the horse found its archaeological reflection in Irmen house-building, burial and commemorative rituals. The location analysis of animal bone remains within the sacral space of Irmen burial mounds has shown that heads (skulls) and skins of horses had been used by the Irmen people most frequently during burial and subsequent commemorative ceremonies of the funeral cycle.