Horse-related Activities Research Articles

Hippotherapy Used in Medical Recovery

Hippotherapy, also known as equine-assisted therapy, falls into the category of alternative therapies that involve human-horse interaction for therapeutic purposes. Horse therapies are especially used for children with various physical, cognitive, and emotional disorders. They can also be successfully used with adults and the elderly. The horse's movement is what stimulates the development of motor skills, balance, and coordination. Direct interaction with the horse, including caring for it, riding, and other related activities, is effective in developing social, emotional, and cognitive skills in both children and adults, as well as in the elderly. Hippotherapy encourages self-confidence, concentration, and motor coordination, making it suitable for people who are anxious, antisocial, depressed, have language difficulties, or low self-esteem. Studies highlight that the presence of horses changes the frequency of the human brain, with subjects becoming more aware and focused when around horses. Horses help therapy beneficiaries stay connected to the present, becoming more aware of their experiences. Additionally, patients learn to pay more attention to the feelings and nonverbal language transmitted by the being they come into contact with. Numerous studies show that horseback riding improves balance, coordination, and reflexes, induces muscle relaxation, reduces spasticity, increases joint mobility, and improves respiratory function and blood circulation. The main objective of the paper is to identify therapies that use horses for patients diagnosed with various conditions, the benefits of these therapies on patients' motor skills, and their effects on patients' mental state. Additionally, we aim to identify horse-related activities that enhance concentration, help address behavioral issues, and facilitate patients' integration into social groups.

177 University students’ attitude toward horses improved with participation in an equine activity

The Michigan State University Horse Teaching and Research Center (HTRC) is open to the public every day. In 2022, 865 Michigan State University students took part in classes at the HTRC, representing only a fraction (1.74%) of the 49,696-student population. This study explored how student participation in a horse activity influenced their attitude toward horses. MSU students (n = 115) were recruited for this study using a campus wide poster campaign, Facebook posts, club and class announcements. Students were randomly divided into 3 activity groups: Guided walk primarily taking place on a farm lane with no opportunity to observe horses (n = 37); a self-guided tour of HTRC with the opportunity to both observe and interact with horses (n = 38); and grooming a horse (n = 40). Students completed a pre and post activity survey immediately before and after their 30-min activity. Both surveys included 8 questions regarding attitudes toward horses using a 5-point Likert scale. Five questions were modeled after the Pet Attitude Scale and 3 questions described what students might experience during their activity (do you like observing, caring for, or petting a horse). A repeated-measures ANOVA in SPSS showed that mean horse attitude scores improved significantly between pre and post test overall (F(1, 112) = 39.879, P < 0.005) and there were no differences between activity groups. During registration,student demographics were collected, and students answered questions about their previous horse experience. Most students participating in this study were undergraduates (78.2%, n = 90). Participants represented 14 colleges across campus, with the College of Agriculture and Natural Resources leading student participants at 36.5% (n = 42). Students described their horse experience as either inexperienced (34.8%, n = 40), novice (31.3%, n = 36), intermediate (14.8%, n = 17), experienced (9.6%, n = 11), or advanced (7.0%, n = 8). Most participants (82.6%, n = 95) strongly agreed they would recommend others to visit the HTRC. Participants in the study also planned to participate in a horse activity in the next year (70.4%, n = 81) based on their experience in this study. While it is estimated the HTRC has 30,000 visitors each year, there is not any information as to whether MSU students utilize the farm outside of classes and organized events. These results support the idea that a visit to the campus horse farm can have a positive impact on a student's attitude toward horses. This can be important as the equine industry investigates opportunities for individuals to engage in more horse-related activities.

Horse-related injury patterns: a single center report

BackgroundFor ages, humankind and horses have been closely related to occupational and recreational activities. The dangers of engaging with horses have been previously reported. Among sporting activities, horse riding is well-known for its risks. Despite multiple recommendations to wear protective gear, horse-related activities still comprise the risk of severe injuries. This study aimed to examine: (1) if specific mechanisms are correlated to particular injury patterns and (2) if injury types are related to patient demographics.MethodsFrom one level I trauma center, between July 2019 and July 2022 (3 years) all emergency reports and discharge letters were retrospectively reviewed by full-text search regarding horse-related injuries. Patient demographics, body mass index, trauma mechanism, injury types, and initiated treatment were extracted from medical records and analyzed.ResultsDuring the study period, 95 patients with 99 horse-related injuries were included. The overwhelming majority of the patients was female (93.7%). Age averaged 35.3 years (range 6 to 71). BMI was 23.6 kg/m2. Inpatient treatment was required in 60.6%. Length of hospital stay averaged 10 days. Surgical treatment was performed in 55 patients (55.6%). Open reduction and internal fixation was the most common procedure (74.5%). Trauma mechanism was fall from a horse followed by being hit by a horse (60.6% and 23.2%, respectively). Injured upper extremities counted up for 52.5% followed by spinal and pelvic injuries (23.2%). Spinal and pelvic injuries were related to fall from a horse (p < 0.001). Injuries to the lower extremities were predominantly caused by a kick of the horse when the rider was unmounted (p = 0.001) and negatively related to a fall from a horse (p = 0.002). Ten patients got their fingers tangled while holding the reins and suffered from injuries to the upper extremity (p < 0.001). Three of them required an amputation (30%).ConclusionDespite the fact that patients are young and healthy, horse related injuries must not be underestimated. In our study, almost two-thirds of the patients required inpatient treatment and 50% underwent surgery. We could show that patient age was related to injury severity according to the Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS). Spinal and pelvic injuries were significantly related to a fall from a horse with a significantly greater trauma impact according to the AIS. Therefore, these severe entities need to be ruled out in such events. Accidents caused by holding the reins, may result in serious injuries to the hand with 30% requiring an amputation. Doctors need to be aware of possible horse-related injury patterns to reduce morbidity.

Epidemiological Study of Equestrian Trauma in Geneva.

Horse-related activities are increasingly popular among young people but are frequently associated with severe injuries requiring hospital treatment. There are few data on the incidence of equestrian injuries, especially in child populations, or on means of prevention. Thus, this study's purpose was to highlight the epidemiological data on specific injuries due to equestrianism and serve as the groundwork for future studies on the prevention of equestrian accidents. A retrospective study collected data on all children younger than 16 years old who attended our regional emergency department after involvement in an equestrian accident. The study covered the periods from 1990 to 2003 and 2011 to 2018. Twenty-two years of data on trauma circumstances, injury patterns (mechanism, anatomic site, and severity), treatment protocols, and hospital lengths of stay were analyzed. This study confirmed that more young females participating in equestrian sports attended our emergency department than males. The leading cause of equestrian injury was falling from a horse (80.2%). Orthopaedic injuries represented around 60% of all reported lesions, far ahead of head injuries (30%). More than half of the injured children required hospitalization for inpatient medical care, and almost 50% of these underwent a surgical procedure, especially for upper extremity fractures (72% of all fractures). One patient died due to severe cerebral injury. Horse riding injuries occur more frequently and are more serious than in many other sporting activities. There is an urgent need to reassess preventive measures to reduce the incidence and severity of equestrian injuries. Level IV.

Rural Status of Equine Assisted Activities and Therapies and Cancer Survivors

Background: Although equine assisted activities and therapies (EAAT) are rapidly increasing, as are cancer survival rates, little is known about the engagement of cancer survivors in EAAT. One may conceptualize equine or horse related activities as occurring in rural areas; however, the rural status of EAAT centers are not fully reported.Purpose: To explore the rural status of EAAT centers, and whether EAAT is provided for cancer survivors and the more common service for post-traumatic stress disorder at those centers.Method: A quantitative descriptive analysis was conducted of publicly available data after an exempt status decision of an Institutional Review Board. Services using EAAT for those with terminal illnesses, post-traumatic stress disorder and cancer survivors were examined. Rural status was evaluated for all organizational members (N = 784) of Professional Association of Therapeutic Horsemanship International (PATH Intl.). Roy adaptation model was used as a theoretical framework in this project.Findings: All types of the organizational members, cluster in urban areas more than rural areas. Significant relationship (p = 0.039) was found between rural status and type of membership, where more urban than rural centers were premier accredited center members. Most of the contacted and responding centers stated that they do provided EAAT for cancer survivors (n = 204); however, only (n = 26) centers have programs specifically designed for cancer survivors.Conclusion: There are not only less EAAT rural than urban centers, but rural centers also tend to have lower quality level membership based on PATH Intl. standards. Although EAAT is provided for cancer survivors, identifying effective ways to provide EAAT and standardization of programs for cancer survivors is recommended.&#x0D; DOI: http://doi.org/10.14574/ojrnhc.v20i2.601

Injuries outside of horseracing: is it time to focus on injury prevention of jockeys outside of races?

ABSTRACT Objectives: Falls and injuries are frequent in professional horseracing. However, professional jockeys spend a large part of their week in horse-related activities outside of racing such as schooling, exercise riding, and yard-related activities. The injury risk related to these activities remains largely unknown internationally. This study aimed to identify the injury prevalence and injury profile of flat and jump jockeys during non-racing activities. Methods: In total 45.6% and 38.5% of all licensed Irish professional flat and jump jockeys completed a cross-sectional self-recall questionnaire examining injuries that occurred outside of racing during 2018. Injury proportion, repeat incidence proportion, and descriptive statistics were calculated. Results: Fifteen percent of professional jockeys sustained an injury outside of a race, half of those injured receiving at least another injury in 2018 and 66.52 injuries per 1,000 falls were noted. Injuries frequently occurred to the upper limb (36.67%), with fractures common (32.00%). Most injuries occurred due to a fall (60.00%) and 77.27% occurred in the gallops. Half of injuries resulted in the jockey missing racing, with 31.00 ± 47.18 (4–180) days lost on average. Twenty-three percent of jockeys attended hospital and 16.67% required surgery due to injury. Interestingly, just under a third did not report their injury to anyone. Conclusion: Injuries to professional jockeys, whilst not as frequent outside of racing, tend to be serious and can affect jockeys financially and impact their availability to ride. Prioritizing injury prevention strategies to maximize availability of jockeys to race is important. Education on the importance of reporting all injuries regardless of where they occur is important to ensure their management and rehabilitation.

Equestrian tourism and horse breeding in Hungary and Slovenia – environmental sustainability and conservation of cultural heritage: a strategic approach

Historically, horse-breeding and riding has been an integral part of Hungarian and Slovenian culture for over a thousand years. In a broader sense, the equestrian sector includes all related activities, without which the efficient operation of the sector is unthinkable. Examples include infrastructure development, fodder production, veterinary services, the institutional system operating in the sector (public and non-governmental organizations, etc.). In the narrower sense, the equestrian industry is the sum of all areas where the horse is the main driver of its operation. This includes all areas of horse-related activities, such as all-inclusive education, use of horses in organic agriculture, horse breeding, equestrian tourism, horse racing, traditional historic horse-events, equestrian therapy, recreational riding and horseback riding are key elements. A feasibility study was carried out in the Hungarian – Slovenian border region to explore the possibilities for joint cross-boundary development of horse-based tourism. Hungary's and Slovenia’s contemporary natural qualities provide excellent opportunities for equestrian tourism. The starting point for formulating cross-boundary equestrian programme is that the mutually reinforcing, complex and holistic development of each sub-area can only produce results. We have identified the strategic goals of equestrian tourist destination development: a) people-centred and long-term profitable development; b) improvement of tourism reception conditions; c) attraction development, including target-group oriented special programmes; d) human resource development and equestrian education; e) PR and marketing; f) regulatory interventions / measures, which can be effective if they work closely with businesses, NGOs and the public sector (municipalities, government agencies), including conservation of horse-related material and intangible cultural heritage.

Prevalence and impact of bumps, bruises, and other painful incidents among children while handling and riding horses

Horseback riding and related activities bring risks for serious injury. Extant literature focuses largely on moderate to severe horse-related injuries resulting in a need for medical care. Yet incidents deemed as less severe are also important, with potential to impact subsequent safety precautions and behaviors of parents and children. The study objectives were to gather preliminary information about: (1) the prevalence of a range of horse-related painful incidents experienced by children, (2) children's helmet use and supervision, and (3) the subsequent impact of horse-related painful incidents. The methodological approach was based on a questionnaire.One hundred and twenty four child (120 Female; Mage: 11.82 years; rangeage: 8–18; SDage: 2.26) and parent (103 mothers; 16 fathers; 5 other legal guardians) dyads completed a brief 5 minute researcher-generated questionnaire. The results show, that painful incidents are common for children when handling and riding horses, with the majority of children having experienced these incidents more than once. Helmet use and supervision (typically by parents and coaches) were reported to occur consistently during riding, but less commonly during handling (e.g., grooming). Despite the high prevalence of painful incidents, these incidents largely do not impact children's ability to participate in other activities, result in access to specialized medical attention, or alter children's perceptions or behavior around horses. Findings may have implications for safety and education initiatives. Management implicationsFindings from this work suggest several implications. First, in acknowledging the range and frequency of incidents that occur during horse-related activities, educational initiatives should target a broad range of incident types when teaching about horse safety and injury prevention. Second, in recognizing primary caregivers and riding coaches as the most common supervisors of horse-related activities, they should also be targeted in educational initiatives (e.g., horse and safety knowledge, first aid, supervision guidelines). Finally, in developing and implementing targeted safety and injury prevention initiatives, reported benefits of the sport (e.g., improved problem-solving skills) could be used and supported in safety programming.

Examining Human-Horse Interaction by Means of Affect Recognition via Physiological Signals

For some time, equine-assisted therapy (EAT), i.e., the use of horse-related activities for therapeutic reasons, has been recognised as a useful approach in the treatment of many mental health issues such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), depression, and anxiety. However, despite the interest in EAT, few scientific studies have focused on understanding the complex emotional response that horses seem to elicit in human riders and handlers. In this work, the potential use of affect recognition techniques based on physiological signals is examined for the task of assessing the interaction between humans and horses in terms of the emotional response of the humans to this interaction. Electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), and electromyography (EMG) signals were captured from humans interacting with horses, and machine learning techniques were applied in order to predict the self-reported emotional states of the human subjects in terms of valence and arousal. Supervised classification experiments demonstrated the potential of this approach for affect recognition during human-horse interaction, reaching an F1-score of 78.27% for valence and 65.49% for arousal.

What works for which riders, and to what extent? Evaluating the effectiveness of a New Zealand therapeutic riding intervention using a single-case experimental design

Therapeutic horse riding (THR) is a complex intervention using horses and horse-related activities to positively influence health in people who experience disability. It is difficult to meaningfully evaluate the effectiveness of complex rehabilitation interventions with parallel randomised controlled trial methods when used in isolation. Reducing intervention complexities to simple variables for the purposes of minimising bias can enhance claims regarding causal associations between variables, but can result in difficulties translating the findings from these studies to ‘real world’ clinical practice where complexity is a certainty. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a therapeutic horse riding (THR) intervention using a single-case experimental design (SCED). A randomised, multiple-baseline SCED replicated across 12 participants, was used to quantitatively evaluate in which riders, and to what extent, changes in balance, functional performance, social responsiveness, quality of life and participation outcomes occurred as a result of the 20-week THR intervention. Analysis of data included analysis of individual participant responses (i.e., visual analysis, descriptive nonparametric approaches, analyses considering baseline stability evaluated with Mean Phase Difference and Slope and Level Change procedures) and between participant responses (i.e., Modified Brinley plots, estimation of effect sizes). An inconsistent intervention response to THR was seen across participants in the SCED. Participation outcomes measured using the Canadian Occupation Performance Measure (COPM) demonstrated the most consistent positive between-phase difference (performance score ES = 1.23; satisfaction score ES = 1.11). However, when taking baseline data stability into account these improvements only reached clinical significance for two of the participants. Being involved in THR may improve participation outcomes for some children who live with the experience of disability. SCED's provide a rigorous but clinically meaningful way to evaluate the effectiveness of complex rehabilitation interventions in real world.

Patterns of mandibular fractures related to interaction with horses

Background: The risks of facial injuries with horse-related activities are much higher than in other sports. There are just a few studies about horse-related maxillofacial injuries, and there are even less data in particular about mandibular fractures. However, the aim of this study was to determine the patterns for mandibular fractures caused by horse contact or horseback riding. Materials and Methods: Data from patient records were collected over 15 years from January 2000 to March 2015. All patients who suffer a mandibular fracture caused by horse contact or horseback riding were included in this study. The analysis contained demographical data, trauma mechanism, type of mandible fracture, and type of protective clothing. Results: Overall, 23 patients within 37 fractures were included in the study. Of those, 87% were females and 13% males. More than the half (52.2%) were aged between 16 and 30 years. The most common trauma mechanism was a horse kick (78.3%). The most common site of fractures was the parasymphysis (32.4%) and the condylar region (32.4%), followed by the angle (21.7%). In addition, 52.2% of the patients had a single and 47.8% a combined fracture of the mandible. Nearly all patients (95.7%) underwent surgery. Open reduction and internal fixation was the treatment of choice. Only 17.4% of the patients wore a helmet. Conclusion: Mandibular fractures are not the leading trauma in horse relating accidents; however, they are often associated with functional loss. The most frequent cause is a kick from the horse while unmounted. Hence, there is a need for protective equipment usage at all times around horses especially wearing a helmet with a face guard.

Energy Generation from Horse Husbandry Residues by Anaerobic Digestion, Combustion, and an Integrated Approach

Horse-related activities often occur close to urban areas, where acreage for horse manure disposal is scarce, and subsequently alternative recovery options are necessary. Anaerobic digestion, direct combustion, and the integrated generation of solid fuel and biogas from biomass (IFBB) process are potential techniques focusing on energy provision. In this study, samples of horse faeces were analysed for chemical composition as pure feedstock and in mixture with straw or wood shavings, as well as for energy yield by biogas production or from combustion of solid fuel. It was observed that chemical properties of faeces, in a mixture with wood shavings, were promising for direct combustion, but achieved low methane yields. The methane yield of pure faeces and the straw mixture was 222.33 ± 13.60 and 233.01 ± 31.32 lN·kg-1 volatile solids (VS)added, respectively. The IFBB process divided the biomass into a press cake with reduced mineral concentration and a press fluid. Methane yields of press fluids were low (108.2 lN·kg-1 VSadded, on average). The chemical composition of the press cake allowed for combustion and led to a higher gross energy potential than anaerobic digestion (two-fold higher for pure manure and the mixture with straw, and five-fold higher for the mixture with shavings). Consequently, the gross energy potential of IFBB is higher compared to anaerobic digestion, however it should be noted that local conditions might favour the implementation of anaerobic digestion.

El sector ecuestre y la economía

The horse has been an ever-present ally of man throughout history. The roles that the horse has played in human life have always been shaped by the human needs in each historical moment. The most recent change in the horse’s roles has taken place approximately since the sixties of the last century, and has had so much importance that can be characterized by the expression of Equestrian Revolution. Nevertheless, the number of consumers who desire to satisfy their new needs through horse-related activities, and that of those who respond to the demand are different in each of the countries, where the change has occurred at both the level of demand and the production structures of the horse industry, in order to sustainably satisfy the new needs with a clear vision in mind, for human development and wellbeing. The core issue is to study the conditions, which have taken place in the countries where the horse industry has developed significantly. In order to carry out the study, the countries, where horseracing and/or equestrian disciplines were practiced in the analyzed years were compared to all countries of the world ranked on the basis of economic indicators. Indicators from the sub-sectors of horseracing and equestrian were extracted from their international umbrella organizations, which permitted the classification of all countries. The principal conclusion of the study is that the changes in equestrian demand has been driven by economic conditions, especially in those aspects, which affect human development and can be measured by the human development index. The changes, which have occurred in the countries characterized by high and very high human development, have generated effects on the equestrian demand, which has also driven changes in the supply of horses and horse-related activities producing huge magnitude of economic impacts as a contribution to the economy at the national level.

Demographics of Australian horse owners: results from an internet-based survey.

To obtain information on the demographics of Australian horse owners. An invitation to participate in an opt-in, internet-based survey was sent to 7000 persons who had registered an email address to receive information from the Australian Horse Industry Council Inc. These horse owners represented approximately 1.75% of the total horse owners in Australia. The survey was available for completion between 1 and 31 July 2009. There were 3377 (48%) useable responses. The respondents were a self-selected group of approximately 0.85% of the estimated total horse owners in Australia. The overall geographic distribution of respondents was the same as the general population at a state and territory level. In general, respondents were female and aged between 31 and 60 years; most lived in rural areas of Queensland, New South Wales or Victoria; had at least a secondary education, but no formal horse industry qualification; had a higher weekly income if based in a capital city; earned less than 10% of weekly income from horse-related activities; were a member of more than one horse industry organisation; reported an affiliation with one of more than 300 different horse industry organisations; spent 10-30% of their daily time with horses; and preferred to receive information by email. The responses from this survey of horse owners provided demographic information that was previously unavailable. Horse owners tended to be older than the general population, had a higher level of education attainment, were in higher weekly income brackets and lived mostly in non-metropolitan areas of Australia. Because of the self-selection and small sample size, the results need to be interpreted with caution. Nevertheless, the present results are compatible with other smaller random and non-random surveys of horse owners internationally.

Horse Play: A Brief Psychological Intervention for Disengaged Youths

This pilot study examined a brief psychological intervention delivered to a group of disengaged youths (n = 16) using horse-related activities to improve their levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the General Self-Efficacy Scale were administered (preintervention and postintervention). Participants’ case managers also completed a survey to assess their perception of the young people’s behaviors and attitudes to life. Participants showed a significant increase in their levels of self-esteem and self-efficacy following the intervention. There was also evidence of a positive shift in overall attitude toward life. The findings indicated that equine-facilitated therapy might provide a viable option for youths who have not responded to other interventions and who have disengaged from traditional institutions.

Diné (Navajo) parents' and community leaders' perceptions of agriculture-related injury risk to youth: a social narrative.

The purpose of this study was to provide a formative needs assessment of Diné (Navajo) parents for the prevention of childhood injuries resulting from livestock and horses. The research objectives were to identify parents' perceived livestock and horse related injury risks to Diné children and describe Diné community stakeholder input on prevention interventions for reducing injury risks to children associated with livestock and horse related activities on farms or ranches. The assessment used a survey constructed of closed and open-response questions to gauge Diné farmers' and ranchers' perceptions of injury risks to children who live or work on agricultural operations. Additional questions were asked to gauge Diné acceptance of an online training program as a prevention intervention to reduce livestock and horse related injuries to children. A total of 96 individuals agreed to participate in the survey and provided usable responses. A total of 53.2% (f = 50) of participants were female. Sixty-three percent of participants (f = 58) perceived that youth who work with intact male livestock were at high risk for injury. A total of 25 individuals perceived that youth who ride horses without equestrian helmets were at high risk for injury. Approximately 96% (f = 89) of those surveyed agreed or strongly agreed that they would use an online training program to promote agricultural health and safety for Diné youth. When participants were asked if there were safety issues associated with having youth working on a farm or ranch, a very large portion felt that the biggest issue was a lack of education and instruction from elders. A recommendation for an injury prevention practice included developing a user-friendly online network, giving parents and community leaders access to resources to assist in educating youth in local agricultural traditions integrated with safety training.

Equestrian Injuries Caused by Horse Kicks: First Results of a Prospective Multicenter Study

To analyze horse-related accidents caused by hoof kicks. Prospective study to evaluate hoof kick-related accidents. Multicenter study, including 9 trauma centers in Hamburg, Germany. Patients who were treated as the result of a hoof kick between January 1, 2010, and May 1, 2010, were included in the study. Horse and rider qualifications, riders' use of protective equipment, location and activity at time of accident, mechanism of injury, injuries sustained, and treatment required for these injuries. Twenty-four equestrians received hoof kicks. The average age was 22.6 years (range, 7-34 years). All accidents (100%) occurred while the equestrians were handing or grooming the horse. Two riders (8.3%) wore a helmet at time of accident. Sixteen riders (66.7%) suffered orbital, midface, or mandible fractures; 8 riders (33.3%) had injuries on other parts of the body. Hoof kick injuries account for a significant proportion of equine injuries and occur when riders are dismounted, most frequently when grooming without wearing protective equipment. Head and facial injuries occur most frequently and suggest that mandatory helmet and facial grill use should be considered during all horse-related activities.

A new look at horse-related sport and recreational injury in New Zealand

Although equestrian injury studies to date have provided useful information for injury prevention, these studies have not been detailed enough or inclusive enough, to identify and characterise all sub-populations that may be at risk. One study has reported injury rates for the population-at-risk. The present study was carried out to determine, more precisely, who is injured in horse-related activities in New Zealand, what sorts of injuries they sustain, the circumstances of injury and the cost of treatment. A novel search of linked hospital discharge and compensation claim data for 2002 and 2003 was carried out. Of 716 newly hospitalised cases, 29% were in the 5–19-year and 28% in the 35–49-year age groups. Incidence rates for regular riders peaked at 13–15 years (900/100000) and 50+ years (880/100000). Where the ‘place of occurrence’ was specified only 12% of cases sustained injury in a ‘sports and athletics area’. This new study has highlighted injuries occurring in farm and other ‘open’ locations such as mountains and forest, injuries to older riders and injuries to bystanders/handlers during non-organised recreational activity. Attention was drawn to the high in-patient cost of hospitalised injuries in persons >40 years and the need for injury information relating to specific riding activities. Current equestrian injury prevention tends to target young females and organised riding; in focusing on these, other significant population groups and injury mechanisms may be overlooked and opportunities for injury prevention missed.

Horse-related injuries in children.

To identify the frequency, spectrum and outcome of horse-related injuries in children. Retrospective case series of horse-related injuries in children admitted to the Children's Hospital at Westmead (CHW) from January 1988 to December 1999, the John Hunter Children's Hospital (JHCH) from January 1991 to December 1997 and deaths reported to the New South Wales Paediatric Trauma Death (NPTD) Registry from January 1988 to December 1999. Circumstances of injury; helmet use; adult supervision; type and number of injuries identified. 232 children were admitted with horse-related trauma, 97 to the CHW over 12 years and 135 to JHCH over seven years, with one death at each hospital. There were six deaths reported to the NPTD Registry over 12 years. The median age was 11 years (range, 1-17). Girls accounted for 65% of those injured and 75% of children were injured while riding. Falls caused the injury in 76.3% of cases. Head and upper-limb trauma accounted for 216 of the injuries (73%). Five out of six children with severe head injuries died. In the CHW group, helmet use was documented in only 24 riders (38%) and adult supervision in 22 (22.9%). Horse-related trauma accounts for a considerable number of deaths and injuries in children in NSW. The use of a Standards-approved helmet for riding or horse-related activities might have decreased the severity of head injuries.

Fatalities caused by nonvenomous animals: A ten-year summary from Sweden

All 58 deaths caused by nonvenomous animals in Sweden 1975–1984 were scrutinized. In 38 cases horses were involved, in 16 cattle and in one case each a moose, a lion, a dog and a ram. In the horse-related fatalities, the most common cause of accident was that the horse bolted or reared, causing the rider to fall off the horse or the cart or sulky. Falls were thus associated with 22 horse-related deaths. In cattle-related accidents, all fatalities where the cause of accident was known occurred due to aggressive behaviour of the animal. In horse-related accidents, head injuries dominated, while in cattle-related accidents head and chest injuries were equally common. It is suggested that wearing a proper helmet is the most important safety measure in horse-related activities. In cattle-related activities, the herding of untethered bulls together with cows is particularly dangerous and should be avoided.