Horse Heaven Hills Research Articles

Freeze-Killed Leaf Material Causes Atypical Aromas and Astringency in Cabernet Sauvignon

<h3>Background and goals</h3> Washington State Cabernet Sauvignon wines made from fruit harvested after an autumn freeze have been shown to present potpourri, floral, and rose-like aromas. These aromas are described as atypical by Washington State winemakers and the affected wines are considered “rose-tainted” or “frost-tainted.” Anecdotal evidence suggests that the inclusion of freeze-killed leaf material (FKLM) in the fermentation is the source of the taint. <h3>Methods and key findings</h3> Freeze-killed leaves were hand-collected from Cabernet Sauvignon vines in the Horse Heaven Hills, then crushed and added to Cabernet Sauvignon must at four addition rates: 0.0, 0.5, 2.0, and 8.0 g/kg. The Cabernet Sauvignon fruit was not exposed to freezing temperatures prior to harvest. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry identified 60 volatile and semi-volatile organic compounds that correlated with FKLM addition. Additionally, the phenolic chemistry showed reduced concentrations of anthocyanin, tannin, and iron-reactive phenolics. Descriptive sensory analysis found that adding FKLM significantly increased the intensity of floral aroma, herbaceous/straw aroma, artificial fruit aroma, and floral aftertaste, but also decreased the intensity of dark fruit aroma and astringent mouthfeel. <h3>Conclusions and significance</h3> We estimate that approximately three freeze-killed leaves per vine will produce taint characteristics. These results clearly show the impact of freeze-killed grapevine leaves on Cabernet Sauvignon wine quality and provide convincing evidence of the taint’s source.

The Olympic-Wallowa lineament: A new look at an old controversy

Abstract The Olympic-Wallowa lineament (OWL) is an alignment of geologic structures extending nearly 650 km across the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and has been a controversial feature since it was first described nearly 80 years ago. It extends from the Olympic Peninsula–Puget Sound area of western Washington to the Wallowa Mountains of northeast Oregon, crossing through the Columbia Basin and forming the southern boundary of the Pasco and Walla Walla Basins. Within the Columbia Basin, the OWL is a wide zone that aligns with &amp;gt;250 km of folds and faults that are part of the Yakima fold and thrust belt. Although the OWL is recognized to be active with deformation continuing from the Miocene to Recent, there are two competing end-member interpretations on the style of deformation: that of a major through-going, dextral strike-slip or oblique-slip fault and that of a series of thrusted anticlines. We focus on that portion of the OWL in the central Columbia Basin that extends from the Walla Walla River in northeast Oregon to Rattlesnake Mountain in central Washington. East of Wallula Gap, the OWL is expressed as the Wallula fault zone along the north flank of the Horse Heaven Hills anticline and the south fork of the Walla Walla River, while west of Wallula Gap, there are three structural alignments: the Rattlesnake-Wallula structural alignment, the Horse Heaven Hills–Badlands structural alignment, and the Horn Rapids–Badger Coulee structural alignment. Except for the Horse Heaven Hills anticline, the structural trends west of Wallula Gap mainly consist of a series of doubly plunging, northeast-verging anticlines. We demonstrate that the OWL consists of north-verging, thrusted anticlines whose orientation and structure are controlled by a basement fault without any evidence of strike-slip or significant oblique-slip fault movement since at least the middle Miocene. The difference in structural deformation of the portion of the OWL to the east of Wallula Gap versus that to the west appears to be controlled by the thickness of pre-basalt sediment within the central Columbia Basin and structures therein.

Soil properties influenced by summer fallow management in the Horse Heaven Hills of south central Washington

The Horse Heaven Hills (HHH) is the world9s driest rainfed wheat (<i>Triticum aestivum</i> L.) region where soils are highly susceptible to wind erosion due to use of tillage during the fallow phase of the winter wheat–summer fallow (WW-SF) cropping system. Wheat straw residue biomass and cover, surface roughness, soil water content and strength, and aggregate size distribution of no-tillage fallow (NTF), undercutter-tillage fallow (UTF), and traditional-tillage fallow (TTF) were measured after primary tillage of UTF and TTF in late April and after sowing winter wheat in late August of 2007 at two sites in the HHH. Residue cover and silhouette area index were at least two times greater and penetration resistance and shear stress were at least five times greater for NTF than TTF in spring and late summer at both sites. Random roughness was typically lower for NTF as compared with UTF in spring and late summer at both sites. Summer fallow treatments influenced soil aggregation whereby geometric mean diameter was greater and erodible fraction was lower for NTF than TTF. Based upon the Revised Wind Erosion Equation (RWEQ), sediment flux was lowest for NTF and at least 70% lower for UTF as compared with TTF. Thus, soil loss due to wind erosion can be reduced by using NTF and UTF rather than TTF for WW-SF rotations in the HHH.

Comparison of foliar‐ and soil‐applied phosphorus fertilizer in wine grape

To investigate effective fertilizer practices to address low‐P wine grapes, an experiment was conducted in four wine grape blocks in the Horse Heaven Hills American Viticultural Area (AVA) of Washington State in 2014 and 2015. The research trials evaluated different rates of P fertilizer and also examined wine grape response to foliar‐applied P vs. soil applications of P through the drip irrigation systems. Earn 0.5 CEUs in Nutrient Management by reading this article and taking the quiz at www.certifiedcropadviser.org/certifications/self‐study/791.

Best Management Practices for Summer Fallow in the World's Driest Rainfed Wheat Region

The Horse Heaven Hills (HHH) located in south‐central Washington contains the world's driest rainfed wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) production region, where farms receive as little as 150 mm average annual precipitation. Late summer establishment of winter wheat into carryover seed‐zone water after a year of fallow is essential to achieve the highest grain yield potential. Tillage of fallow land during the spring is considered necessary to retain adequate seed‐zone water during the dry summer months, but blowing dust from excessively tilled fallow is a major safety, environmental, and soil‐quality concern. We compared three fallow management systems for soil water dynamics, wheat stand establishment, grain yield, and economic returns on two farms over 5 yr in western and eastern portions of the HHH where long‐term annual precipitation averages 153 and 211 mm, respectively. Treatments were: (i) traditional tillage (TTF), undercutter conservation tillage (UTF), and no‐till (NTF). Late‐summer planting of winter wheat in TTF and UTF was possible in only 1 of 5 yr at the western site due to lack of adequate seed‐zone water, whereas late‐summer planting was possible every year at the eastern site. There were no significant differences in net economic returns among fallow management treatments at the western site; however, net returns per hectare averaged a positive US$101 for TTF and UFT vs. a negative US$92 for NTF at the eastern site. Although seed‐zone water in late summer was consistently lowest with NTF at both sites, we recommend NTF in the western HHH because achieving adequate seed‐zone water for early wheat establishment is generally not possible with any fallow management practice and NTF is economically viable and excellent for wind erosion control. On the other hand, in the eastern HHH, where adequate seed‐zone water for early planting can be achieved with tillage most years, farmers should practice UTF. This study documented that NTF in the western HHH and UTF in the eastern HHH are best management practices for farmers and the environment in a region where wind erosion from excessively tilled soils is a severe problem.

Plant-Parasitic Nematodes Associated with Grapevines, Vitis vinifera , in Washington and Idaho

Surveys were conducted in eastern Washington and Idaho to determine the plant-parasitic nematodes associated with winegrape (Vitis vinifera) vineyards. The most commonly encountered plant-parasitic nematodes in eastern Washington and Idaho winegrape vineyards were Meloidogyne hapla, Paratylenchus spp., and Xiphinema spp. (detected in >50% of sampled vineyards) with Pratylenchus spp. and Helicotylenchus spp. also commonly detected in Idaho. The frequency of occurrence of these plant-parasitic nematodes was consistently greater in Idaho compared to eastern Washington, except for M. hapla, which had a similar frequency of occurrence in both states. The types of groundcover or irrigation method used in vineyards and estimates of previous crop yields did not influence nematodes present in soil, but differences in plant-parasitic nematode communities were found among geographical areas (American Viticultural Areas, AVAs). Xiphinema spp. was more commonly associated with vineyards in the Horse Heaven Hills and Snake River Valley AVAs than in the Yakima Valley and Columbia Valley AVAs. Twenty-seven juice grape (Vitis labruscana) vineyards were sampled to enable a comparison of plant-parasitic nematode communities among red and white winegrapes (V. vinifera) and juice grape varieties. Meloidogyne hapla and Xiphinema spp. were more commonly found in red and white winegrape vineyards than in juice grape vineyards, while Mesocriconema xenoplax and Paratylenchus spp. were more commonly associated with white wine and juice grape vineyards than with red winegrape vineyards. While plant-parasitic nematodes were commonly found in eastern Washington and Idaho vineyards, the impact of these plant-parasitic nematodes on winegrape productivity in this region remains to be determined.

Wind erosion and PM10 emission affected by tillage systems in the world's driest rainfed wheat region

The Horse Heaven Hills of south-central Washington is the driest rainfed wheat growing region in the world. Low precipitation, high winds, poorly aggregated soils, sparse residue cover, and a tillage-based winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) – summer fallow (WW-SF) cropping system often combine to create soil surfaces which are susceptible to wind erosion. No-tillage summer fallow (NTF) and conservation tillage fallow (CTF) with an undercutter sweep implement were examined as alternative practices to traditional tillage fallow (TTF) with a tandem disk implement for reducing wind erosion and PM10 (particulate matter ≤10μm in aerodynamic diameter) emissions during the fallow phase of the WW-SF rotation. Wind erosion and PM10 emissions were assessed with a wind tunnel after primary spring tillage in mid-to-late April and after sowing winter wheat in August. Sediment loss and PM10 vertical flux and loss were generally less for NTF than with TTF, likely due to retention of surface residue and maintaining a soil crust in NTF. Sediment and PM10 loss increased after sowing wheat in both the TTF and CTF treatments. Although NTF abated the loss of sediment and PM0 compared with TTF, NTF is not yet an economical option for most growers in the region. Conservation tillage fallow using the undercutter sweep is an economically viable alternative to TTF for reducing windblown sediment and PM10 loss from agricultural soils in the Horse Heaven Hills.

To a Redbud

To a Redbud Debora Greger (bio) When I heard your name, I thought lipstick,cardinal, ketchup, pigeon-blood ruby, something sanguine–– all the while, two weeks a year, you flowered something the field guide calls “purple/pink” with an air of defeat. You haven’t bothered with leaves. Furred with petals, you race the wild plum into bloom. You cloud the sky. You’re childhood’s Horse Heaven Hills come back in dream, dirt painted purple by dawn. The Greyhound bus that no longer runs––it trundles over White Pass, the only passenger the ghost of my mother. Dead two years, she loves to travel so lightly now. She’s tumbleweed curled in her seat, prickly as ever–– if she still finds Seattle “excessively green,” she won’t say. Why am I not there to meet her? Even in dream, the living keep themselves busy, betraying the dead. Flowering Judas, they call you, redbud not red. [End Page 81] Debora Greger Debora Greger’s latest book of poems, By Herself, will be published by Penguin in the fall of 2012. Copyright © 2012 Middlebury College Publications

Predicting seed-zone water content for summer fallow in the Inland Pacific Northwest, USA

The Horse Heaven Hills in south-central Washington contains the world's driest rainfed wheat ( Triticum aestivum L.) region. The climate is Mediterranean with average annual precipitation as low as 150 mm. The cropping system is winter wheat-summer fallow. Tillage is used in the spring of the 13-month fallow to establish a dry soil mulch to help retain seed-zone water to establish winter wheat planted deep into fallow in late August. However, the Horse Heaven Hills is often so dry that even tillage-based summer fallow (TF) cannot retain adequate seed-zone water, and farmers must then wait until the onset of rains in mid October or later for planting. In such dry years, farmers would be better off practicing no-till fallow (NTF) to protect the soil from wind erosion; but no predictive tools are available to assist in these decisions. The objectives of our study were (1) to predict seed-zone water contents and water potentials in late August or early September based on soil water content measured in early April and (2) to compare seed-zone water in TF and NTF. Experiments were conducted for 5 years at each of two sites. Soil water content was measured in both early April and late August. Soil properties and residue loads were characterized to calibrate the Simultaneous Heat and Water model (SHAW). Seed-zone water was simulated in late August based on measured soil water contents in early April and measured temperature and precipitation from April to August. The SHAW model correctly predicted seed-zone water content 80% of the time. The amount and timing of rainfall occurring in April, May, and June was the most important factor controlling the seed-zone water content in late August, suggesting that farmers should delay their decision on whether to practice TF or NTF until late in the spring.

Sensing Radiation

Sensing Radiation Janet Yoder (bio) My world is mapped by Hanford. Its nuclear topography runs along the Columbia River where I was born—reactors, cooling towers as tall as grain elevators, laboratories, electric substations, pumps, tanks, concrete, steel, and hundreds of miles of fencing. In the heat of war and the race for weapons, Hanford grew from a farm town to a nuclear reservation in little more than a year. Hanford’s first reactor was completed in September 1944; its first plutonium was produced within six weeks, then refined and shipped to Los Alamos for the Trinity Bomb Test. More plutonium from Hanford went into the Fat Boy atomic bomb that fell on Nagasaki. That was during the hot war. When Hanford saved the day. Then came the Cold War. By my birth Hanford was etched deep into our map. Reactors ran in the background of our lives like eternal engines, producing power—and plutonium. It was the local factory, where every dad worked. I live in Seattle now, separated from Hanford by the Cascade Mountains; by opposing forces of geology, climate, politics; and by two hundred miles. In October comes my birthday. In October 1984 came my dad’s cancer diagnosis. That October we were put on notice, called home. Each October since, instinct calls me to where my world began. It is October. I leave Seattle and drive east, past Issaquah, into the foothills, and rise to the summit at Snoqualmie. Vine maples—veins of gold—light up the mountainsides. Against the dark forest of Douglas firs the maples signal their mutable state. I am a pilgrim, a seeker, a prodigal daughter, drawn across the mountains, drawn to the desert and its river, drawn by power. [End Page 77] Radiation lives east of the mountains. Like tea stains long steeped into the teapot’s craquelure, radiation seeps through cracks in the dry land along the Columbia River. Radiation lives out its half-lives—many multiples of our whole lives—in the expanse of land that is Hanford. There, below ground, radiation is contained in tanks, barrels, ponds, pits, and pipes that—following immutable laws of entropy and gravity—leak into the water table and weep into the mighty river. Now, we speak of radiation. Sometimes. At least west of the mountains we do. People learn where I am from. They crack their jokes about glow-in-the-dark rabbits and double-tailed rattlers. Or whisper their shuddering fear. Hanford is creepy, they say. I nod and change the subject. Then, we didn’t speak of radiation. In those days everyone’s dad worked at Hanford, doing science that was nuclear, pure, patriotic, and secret. Once trained to secrecy, men held to it. My father was one of these men. A chemical engineer. Dad wore his security badge clipped to his shirt pocket, coat collar, or jacket lapel, and he daily passed through the gate to work at Hanford and daily returned home. He didn’t talk about his work; that was just how it was. You can’t see radiation. Yet you sense its dance, a jittery zigzag across the sagebrush, tumbleweeds, yarrow, like a visual migraine. It ripples through cheat grass on Rattlesnake Mountain. It blows along the Horse Heaven Hills, carrying its dust, mixing that dust with all that has become dust, with all that will become dust. A thin, dry layer coats cars and houses, coats the leaves of cottonwood and sycamore trees, even throats. You might try to catch it straight on, but radiation remains in the periphery, like distant lightning that disappears before you can turn your head. Or is it always there, deep within the rose-red sky that stretches out beyond evening, beyond memory and gravity and time? I knew what kids in the 1950s knew about Hanford: that nuclear power is good, that it can heat and light the country with its brilliant, clean energy; that it can extend the shelf life of foods; that it can sterilize insects that [End Page 78] kill cattle or destroy crops; that it can treat cancer. Particularly, we knew that it can make plutonium for a nuclear bomb, that it already had. That...

Topographic and climatic influences on accelerated loess accumulation since the last glacial maximum in the Palouse, Pacific Northwest, USA

Topographic and climatic influences have controlled thick loess accumulation at the southern margin of the Palouse loess in northern Oregon. Juniper and Cold Springs Canyons, located on the upwind flank of the Horse Heaven Hills, are oriented perpendicular to prevailing southwesterly winds. These canyons are topographic traps that separate eolian sand on the upwind side from thick accumulations (nearly 8 m) of latest Pleistocene to Holocene L1 loess on the downwind side. Silt- and sand-rich glacial outburst flood sediment in the Umatilla Basin is the source of eolian sand and loess for the region. Sediment from this basin also contributes to loess accumulations across much of the Columbia Plateau to the northeast. Downwind of Cold Springs Canyon, Mt. St. Helens set S and Glacier Peak tephras bracket 4 m of loess, demonstrating that approximately 2500 g m −2 yr −1 of loess accumulated between about 15,400–13,100 cal yr B.P. Mass accumulation rates decreased to approximately 250 g m −2 yr −1 from 13,100 cal yr B.P. to the present. Tephrochronology suggests that the bulk of near-source Palouse loess accumulated in one punctuated interval in the latest Pleistocene characterized by a dry and windy climate.

Cropping Systems Research in the World's Driest Rainfed Wheat Region

Winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)–summer fallow (WW‐SF) is the predominant cropping system in the 120000‐ha Horse Heaven Hills (HHH) region in south‐central Washington, USA. Blowing dust from residue‐ and roughness‐deficient SF results in soil loss and causes health problems. Annual no‐till cropping to replace SF would provide year‐round protection against wind erosion. A 6‐yr field study was conducted from 1996 to 2002 to evaluate the agronomic and economic feasibility of continuous annual no‐till hard red spring wheat (HRSW) as an alternative to traditional WW‐SF. Long‐term average annual precipitation at the experiment site is 152 mm, which we believe is the lowest for any nonirrigated wheat region of the world. Annual precipitation during the study ranged from 111 to 240 mm and averaged 153 mm, with two wet years followed by a 4‐yr drought. Russian thistle (Salsola iberica Sennen and Pau) heavily infested HRSW plots and depleted soil water during the two wet years. Seed‐zone water content in SF was sufficient to plant WW in late August in only 2 of 6 yr. Mean (6‐yr) grain yield was 1190 kg ha−1 for WW‐SF (one crop every 2 yr) and 530 kg ha−1 for annual no‐till HRSW. The number of kernels per spike had a significant contribution to yield during years of acute water stress. Net economic returns for annual HRSW lagged WW‐SF by an average $95 ha−1 yr−1. Although continuous annual no‐till cropping has clear environmental advantages, it is not economically competitive with WW‐SF with current technology in the HHH.