Hominin Activity Research Articles

Persistent predators: Zooarchaeological evidence for specialized horse hunting at Schöningen 13II-4

The Schöningen 13II-4 site is a marvel of Paleolithic archaeology. With the extraordinary preservation of complete wooden spears and butchered large mammal bones dating from the Middle Pleistocene, Schöningen maintains a prominent position in the halls of human origins worldwide. Here, we present the first analysis of the complete large mammal faunal assemblage from Schöningen 13II-4, drawing on multiple lines of zooarchaeological and taphonomic evidence to expose the full spectrum of hominin activities at the site—before, during, and after the hunt. Horse (Equus mosbachensis) remains dominate the assemblage and suggest a recurrent ambush hunting strategy along the margins of the Schöningen paleo-lake. In this regard, Schöningen 13II-4 provides the first undisputed evidence for hunting of a single prey species that can be studied from an in situ, open-air context. The Schöningen hominins likely relied on cooperative hunting strategy to target horse family groups, to the near exclusion of bachelor herds. Horse kills occurred during all seasons, implying a year-round presence of hominins on the Schöningen landscape. All portions of prey skeletons are represented in the assemblage, many complete and in semiarticulation, with little transport of skeletal parts away from the site. Butchery marks are abundant, and adult carcasses were processed more thoroughly than were juveniles. Numerous complete, unmodified bones indicated that lean meat and marrow were not always so highly prized, especially in events involving multiple kills when fat and animal hides may have received greater attention. The behaviors displayed at Schöningen continue to challenge our perceptions and models of past hominin lifeways, further cementing Schöningen's standing as the archetype for understanding hunting adaptations during the European Middle Pleistocene.

Individual isotopic niche variation of herbivores and palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of the Mid-Pleistocene Site of Kathu Pan 1 (South Africa)

Individual niche variation occurs when individuals within a population adopt unique behavioural or ecological traits, giving the population a distinct niche structure. Although widespread amongst natural populations, most of niche theory and its applications in ecological and palaeoenvironmental contexts remains focused on species level patterns, treating variation within the population as noise. Using serial stable isotope profiles sampled along teeth of herbivore fossils recovered from the Mid-Pleistocene site of Kathu Pan 1, Northern Cape (South Africa), enabling partitioning of isotopic niche variation into between- and within-individual components. Stable carbon isotope data revealed significant dietary differences between-individuals within most of the taxa sampled, but no dietary differences between taxa. By contrast, stable oxygen isotope compositions were more consistent amongst individuals, but varied across taxa. In both isotope systems, as well as in bivariate space, most taxa comprised individuals with both narrow and broad isotope niches, indicating flexibility in dietary strategies. These results indicate sufficient opportunity for individual level specialization within the Kathu palaeocommunity, afforded by a palaeoenvironment that provided a consistent supply of resources year-round. Given the herbivore sample is strongly associated with fossil hominin activities, our results imply that hominins in these landscapes would have profited from year-round accessibility to resources, accounting for the record of occupancy of Kathu Pan I during the Mid-Pleistocene.

A Mismatched Piece in a Cultural Middle Stone Age Puzzle: Traces of Human Activity Dated to 90 kya (MIS 5) at Sites EDAR 134 and 155 in the Eastern Sahara, Sudan

ABSTRACT This article presents the results of research carried out at two previously unreported Eastern Desert Atbara River project (EDAR) Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites—EDAR 134 and EDAR 155. Luminescence dating results indicate human activity in this area during the Marine Isotope Stage 5 period (MIS 5), approximately 90 kya. Discussion concerning the affiliation of both analyzed inventories will be provided, including another MSA site from the EDAR area, where an assemblage dated to MIS 6/5e does not have technological features known from other technocomplexes in the eastern Sahara region (EDAR 135). Microscopic analysis of traces of tool use for the EDAR 155 assemblage shows the high impact of post-depositional (aeolian) processes on the state of preservation of lithic material. Sites EDAR 134 and 155 provide evidence for hominin activity during the late Pleistocene within an area only episodically accessible, due to arid conditions prevailing in the Saharan deserts.

The late Early Pleistocene site of Fuente Nueva-3 (Guadix-Baza Depression, SE Spain): a hyena latrine developed on a quicksand trap for megaherbivores?

AbstractThe late Early Pleistocene archaeological site of Fuente Nueva-3 (FN3), which lies in the Guadix-Baza Depression (SE Spain) and is dated to ~ 1.4 Ma, contributes some of the oldest evidence of hominin presence in Western Europe, including a huge tool assemblage of Oldowan tradition, manuports (i.e., unmodified stones used as percussion tools) and abundant fossils of large mammals, some of which preserve anthropogenic marks related to defleshing, butchering and marrow processing. In addition, there are bones with tooth marks produced by scavenging carnivores. The fertile layers of the FN3 section have been grouped in a lower archaeological level (LAL) and an upper archaeological level (UAL). Both levels preserve abundant skeletal remains and lithic tools. However, the LAL shows a high density of manuports, which suggests that hominin activity was more intense at this level, while the UAL preserves many remains of megaherbivores, particularly proboscideans (Mammuthus meridionalis), and almost all coprolites unearthed from the site, which points to a greater involvement of the giant hyenas (Pachycrocuta brevirostris). In this paper, we (i) test for statistical differences in the composition of the faunal assemblages preserved in the UAL and LAL; and (ii) analyze particle size in the fertile layers of both archaeological levels. Our results show that megaherbivores are comparatively overrepresented in the UAL, specially by young elephants, while other medium-to-large and large-sized ungulates, particularly equids, are more abundant in the LAL, showing a predominance of adult individuals. Concerning the sedimentology, layers 2–3 of the LAL show a predominance of silts and clays, with sands representing a minor fraction. In contrast, layer 5 of the UAL is composed of two-thirds of fine and very fine sands, with the remaining third consisting of silts and clays. These data and the paleoenvironmental reconstruction of layer 5 suggest that it may be interpreted as a paleo-quicksand in which megaherbivores were trapped due to the elevated weight per unit area supported by their feet, and their half-sunken carcasses attracted the scavengers, particularly the hyenas, which fed on these carcasses and defecated in their surroundings.

The Jojosi Dongas: An interdisciplinary project to study the evolution of human behaviour and landscapes in open-air contexts

Hunter-gatherer groups conduct most of their activities in open landscapes as they provide drinking water, food, and raw materials, and offer spaces for social gatherings. The remains left behind at such sites allow for unique archaeological insights into the spatial patterning of prehistoric behaviour. The Stone Age record in southern Africa remains best-known from sheltered sites. A paucity of stratified open-air localities precludes understanding the full spectrum of past hominin activities. Here we introduce an interdisciplinary project in KwaZulu-Natal to study the evolution of human behaviour and landscape dynamics during the Pleistocene in the open-air context of a stratified hillslope with sediments exposed in so-called dongas, a landform created by gully erosion. The project encompasses field and laboratory approaches, combining archaeological, geographical, geological, chronometric, and palaeoenvironmental data. After reviewing relevant open-air research in archaeology and geography, we identify the Jojosi Dongas as a promising research area. Our fieldwork results from 2022-2023 demonstrate the high archaeological, geographical, and geological potential of this landscape. Foot surveys found abundant MSA artefacts spread throughout the dongas, one area with ESA tools, but little to no traces of LSA or later material. Most finds lie on the surface with rarer stratified material occurring in exposed profiles. The surface MSA material is characterised by almost exclusive hornfels use, frequent cortical pieces, many large blanks and cores, and rare retouched tools. These features differ markedly from lithic trends observed in well-known shelter sites, likely the result of differences in site function. Based on the nature of the surface assemblages and the presence of a large outcrop of high-quality hornfels, we hypothesise that the Jojosi Dongas may have been a specialised quarry and workshop area. The stratified MSA occupations are the focus of ongoing excavations and further studies will aim to test our preliminary interpretations provided here.

Climatic variability in the Armenian Highlands as the backdrop to hominin population dynamics 50–25 ka

The impact of Late Pleistocene climatic oscillations, volcanism and the diverse terrain of the Armenian Highlands affected hominin population dynamics and movements through the region. To test different scenarios for the period 50–25 ka regarding expansion, adaptive response, intra-population interactions and extinction, we need local on-site paleoclimatic data found in association with hominin occupations. However, this approach has been hampered by the dearth and highly uneven spatiotemporal recovery of paleoclimatic data from prehistoric sites across the region. In this study, we analyze multiple assemblages of fossil micromammals from the Late Middle Paleolithic (LMP) Lusakert-1 rockshelter (two fossil-yielding strata; <55 ka) and Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP) Aghitu-3 Cave (four fossil-yielding strata; ∼39–24 ka) using geometric morphometric-aided taxonomy, to quantify the representation of different species among the abundant and diverse arvicoline genera (Microtus and Chionomys; mean = 58% of assemblages). We combined this approach with quantitative species-level paleoclimatic reconstructions (Bioclimatic Model; 14 rodent taxa) to determine changes in habitat composition as well as temperature and precipitation shifts during the Late Middle–Early Upper Paleolithic. Taphonomic analysis was conducted to establish isotaphonomy among the assemblages. The analysis shows higher than present-day absolute temperatures for the series of occupations at both Lusakert-1 and Aghitu-3, making it unlikely that hominin activity at the sites coincided with extreme cold-climate phases. A multivariate comparison of the taxonomic abundances (genus level) across a wider sample of regional Middle Paleolithic (MP) and Upper Paleolithic (UP) cave sites (Hovk-1, Kudaro-1, Mezmaiskaya, Satsurblia and Dzudzuana) indicates the possibility of cold-period occupation at only two of the sites, Mezmaiskaya Layers 3 and 2 and Kudaro-1 Layer 3. We surmise that the manufacturers of LMP lithic industries in the Caucasus were well adapted to these challenging environments, thus undermining arguments that rapid climate change through the LMP/EUP period could alone have determined the course of population dynamics in this region.

Intriguing Occupations at Gran Dolina (Atapuerca, Spain): the Acheulean Subunits TD10.3 and TD10.4

This paper presents the zooarchaeological, technological, use-wear, and spatial analyses of the earliest sedimentary subunits of TD10 (TD10.3 and TD10.4) of the Gran Dolina site (Sierra de Atapuerca, Burgos, Spain), dated to c. 400 ka. Both units have yielded Acheulean technology, with occupational models characterized by the superimposition of multiple and independent events paired with short, sporadic occupations. Subunits TD10.3 and TD10.4 formed during a period in which the cave was largely reopened after a temporary closure. This period of reopening is evidenced by several blocks that fell from the ceiling and walls. Fifty-seven groups of refits and anthropic conjoins, of which 43 resulted from deliberate hominin activity, confirm the low disturbance of the deposits. Contrary to TD10.4, TD10.3 shows good preservation of faunal remains, although anthropogenic modifications are very scarce. Technologically, both deposits represent well-developed Acheulean assemblages, with high proportions of large-shaped tools and percussive material, which place this area among those that have yielded the most evidence of this type among all the excavated Atapuerca sites. The question of why these subunits contain so many hammerstones, manuports, and large tools associated with faunal remains that have been so scarcely modified is discussed based on data from spatial, technical, and use-wear analyses, which have identified butchery activities, and for the first time in the Pleistocene Atapuerca record, borer elements and possible thrusting stone spear tips. Furthermore, the occupational and technological characteristics of these subunits were compared with other western European archaeological sites, including the nearby site of Galería, with which a broad correlation can be made.

Chronology of hominin activity at Vindija Cave, Croatia: new dates recorded via standard and ultrafiltration AMS

AbstractThe project ‘Last Neanderthals at the Crossroads of Central Europe and the Mediterranean’ (NECEM) combines lithic analyses of previously excavated material with new sampling for dating and environmental DNA. New radiocarbon dates from Vindija, presented here, help clarify the chronology of late Neanderthal and early modern human occupations in South-eastern and Central Europe.

Chronology and paleoclimatic context of hominin occupations in the Fenhe River Basin of northern China during the middle to Late Pleistocene

The relationship between climate change and hominin evolution over the Pleistocene in East Asia is still poorly understood, in particular due to the limited number of archaeological finds and fossils with reliable chronologies. Paleolithic sites preserved in loess-paleosol sequences in eastern Chinese Loess Plateau provide prospective evidence for understanding hominin evolution and dispersion across the Middle to Late Pleistocene in northern China. The Fenhe River Basin has been known as a key area for paleolithic sites and fossil hominins. Here, quartz Optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and K-feldspar post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (pIRIR) dating was employed on 61 samples from 13 paleolithic sites in the Fenhe River Basin. The reliability of the ages are checked by analysis of luminescence characteristics and comparison between quartz OSL and K-feldspar pIRIR ages. Paleoclimatic records were established using alternating loess-paleosol sequences, and multi-proxy indices of grain size, magnetic susceptibility, CaCO3 and color from the dated sites. These results provide the reliable chronology for hominin presence in the Fenhe River Basin spanning the past three glacial-interglacial cycles. Our results show that this region experienced predominantly dusty, dry and cold conditions during glacials and comparatively moist and warm interglacial conditions, that are sensitive to variations in East Asian Summer and Winter Monsoon (EASM and EAWM respectively) intensities over glacial-interglacial timescales. The Fenhe River Basin is a key geographic refuge for hominins during glacial-interglacial climatic changes in northern China. It was occupied over glacial and interglacial periods spanning at least the last 370 ky, and the evidence for hominin presence is especially clear from ∼250 to 60 ka and since ∼35 ka. The frequency of hominin activity, as indicated by the number of archaeological sites and density of stone artifacts, increased during warm and humid periods of MIS 7 and MIS 5, in contrast to the cold, windy, and dry period of MIS 6. Site numbers increased in MIS 3 and the Last Glacial Maximum, in association with microblade technology. The dating results indicate that hominins with ‘modern’ features may have occurred in the Fenhe River Basin ∼140 ka ago, however, the exact timing of modern human occupation in the region needs a more combined approach consisting of morphological, ancient DNA and geochronological studies.

Luminescence Chronology of Reticulated Laterites in the Humid Subtropical Mountains of South China

AbstractLaterite is a red weathering crust developed with various rocks and Quaternary loose sediments as its parent material in the tropics and subtropics regions of the world. Since the 1930s, researchers have believed that the fluvial reticulated laterite in southern China was influenced by the warm and humid climate of the Middle Pleistocene. In recent years, the remains of Paleolithic human activities are often found in the reticulated laterite of southern China. However, the study of laterite chronology is sporadic or there is no critical chronological analysis, which causes uncertainty in the identification and discussion of the ages of reticulated laterite and Paleolithic sites. In this study, a Paleolithic site found in fluvial reticulated laterite in South China was systematically tested by quartz optical luminescence dating and geomorphic process analysis. The results show that, (a) The T3 terrace, an archive of hominin activity in the study area, primarily formed between 56 and 11 ka. (b) Reticulated laterite cannot be used simply to determine the ages of the Paleolithic sites found in this stratum, and typical reticulated laterite cannot be used as a marker for climatic stratigraphy and chronostratigraphy. The fluvial reticulated laterite in the southern tropics, under suitable hydrothermal conditions, can form within tens of thousands of years or even within 10 ka. (c) Human activities can affect the burial age of reticulated laterite, and the stratigraphic diachronism of riverine terraces can also lead to an inversion in the age of reticulated laterite.

Magnetostratigraphy of the Pliocene Masol Formation, Siwalik Frontal Range, India: Implications for the age of intentional cut-marked fossil bones

The sedimentary Masol Formation, at least 165 m thick, is located in the Indian Siwalik Frontal Range and outcrops in the Chandigarh Anticline. It includes a fossiliferous zone called the Quranwala Zone (QZ) in its lower part. These fossils are characteristic of the Late Pliocene (Tatrot). Previous magnetostratigraphy showed that the QZ was deposited during the Gauss chron, with a short magnetic excursion at the base of the QZ, but the Gauss-Matuyama reversal was imprecisely identified in the stratigraphy of the Masol Formation. Following cut marks on fossil bones discovered in the QZ, we conducted a new magnetostratigraphy study to clarify their age. Our results indicate that detrital hematite is the main magnetic carrier and confirm that the entire Masol Formation was deposited during the Gauss Chron, whereas the Gauss-Matuyama reversal is outside the study area. Comparison between the magnetic excursion previously found at the base of the QZ and others identified elsewhere in a different sedimentary context and dated between 2.62 and 2.95 Ma, gave a range of sedimentation rates between 0.41 and 3.75 m.kyr-1 for the minimum thickness of the Gauss chron recorded in the Masol Formation. However, only rates less than 1 m.kyr-1 are consistent with the Late Pliocene deposits observed in the Siwalik. Magnetostratigraphy and obtained sedimentation rates conclude that the cut and percussion marks on the fossil bones have a minimum age of 2.68 Ma and a maximum age of 2.95 Ma. This evidence of intentional hominin activity is thus the oldest known in Asia.

Glacial–Interglacial Cycles and Early Human Evolution in China

China is a crucial region for investigating the relationship between climate change and hominin evolution across diverse terrestrial ecosystems. With the continuous development of palaeoclimatology, chronology, and archaeology, the environmental and hominin record of the Early and Middle Pleistocene in China is steadily accumulating, shedding light on the effects of climate change on the distribution of early human settlements and population dynamics. However, the migration and dispersal of these early humans within long-term climate fluctuations and their underlying mechanisms remain to be clarified. Based on the spatial-temporal distribution of 95 Early to Middle Pleistocene archaeological sites in China, we found that intensified hominin activities gradually shifted southward under the influence of multiple glacial–interglacial cycles. The frequent bidirectional movements of these early humans between north and south were assumed as follows. During glacial periods, hominins living in North China migrated to southern areas, while inter-glacial periods witnessed the northward expansion of hominins inhabiting South China. Among all the potential driving mechanisms, we suggest that the available resources in terrestrial ecosystems may be the most fundamental factor. Combined with paleoenvironmental and archaeological records, we provide an Asian perspective for a better understanding of how the glacial–interglacial cycles shaped early human evolution.

Emergent technological variation in archaeological landscapes: a primate perspective.

Archaeological evidence informs our understanding of the evolution of hominin behaviour. Such evidence is traditionally used to reconstruct hominin activities and intentions. In the Plio-Pleistocene, the presence or absence of specific tools and variation in artefact density is often used to infer foraging strategies, cognitive traits and functional activities. However, the Plio-Pleistocene archaeological record is known to be time-averaged and forms through the aggregation of repeated behavioural events over time. Thus, archaeological patterns do not reflect discrete episodes of activity, but rather the interaction of behaviour with environmental factors over time. However, little is known about how such interactions produce archaeological variation diversity. Primate archaeology can help address this research gap by providing the opportunity to observe how behaviour produces material patterns in a natural setting. This study, thus, examines how varying the material properties of stone and resource availability influence the artefactual signature of nut-cracking in a population of long-tailed macaques from Lobi Bay, Yao Noi island, Thailand. Results show that these interactions can produce a structured and diverse material signature in terms of artefact density and frequency of specific artefact types. These findings demonstrate how material patterns can emerge from long-term interactions between behaviour and environmental factors.

Lithic miniaturization and hafted tools in early Late Pleistocene Salawusu, North China

Since its discovery in the 1920s, Salawusu (Sjara-osso-gol), located on the southern edge of the Mongolian Plateau, has been one of the most important Paleolithic findings in East Asia. Unfortunately, because of the miniaturized sizes of the Salawusu artifacts that have traditionally been considered too small to study, little has been known about the lithic technology and tool making skills of these hominins. Here we reexamined the lithic assemblage from the Fanjiagouwan Locality at Salawusu, that has been tentatively dated by Optically Stimulated Luminescence to between 100 ka and 90 ka, to identify hominin activities during Marine Isotope Stage 5 that appear to be specific to this spatial–temporal facie. We analyzed the artifacts at higher magnification and 3D scans to overcome the difficulties of “reading” the reduction traces left on these miniature sized lithics. We also conducted a microwear analysis in addition to a standard techno-typological study. It is quite evident that advanced reduction techniques were applied in the reduction of the miniaturized lithics, and evidence of hafting and composite tools are present as well. These latter observations reveal important features of the Salawusu lithic assemblage. These hominin behaviors are likely directly related to raw material constraints in the region that forced these hominins to get as much as possible out of these small cores. It is possible this technology originated in the Salawusu area and then later spread across northern China, Korea, and Japan during the Late Pleistocene. Given the age of the Fanjiagouwan deposits, it is unclear, at this time, exactly who these stone knappers were.

Using microartifacts to infer Middle Pleistocene lifeways at Schöningen, Germany

While archeologists usually favor the study of large and diagnostic lithic artifacts, this study illustrates the invaluable contribution of lithic microartifacts for interpreting hominin lifeways. Across a 64 m2 area of the Middle Pleistocene lakeshore site of Schöningen 13 II-3 in Northern Germany, we recovered a total of 57 small and micro flint artifacts, four small debris pieces, three natural fragments and three bone retouchers in close association with the skeleton of an extinct Eurasian straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus). This area lacks the type of formal knapped stone tools that would normally constitute the focus of archeological interpretations. By adopting a holistic approach, including morpho-technical analysis, experimental archeology, and use-wear and residue analyses, we demonstrate that these small and microartifacts are resharpening flakes that tell the story of the site. Fifteen resharpening flakes preserve microwear traces of processing wood. Microscopic residues of wood adhered to the former working edges of the tools corroborate this observation. Additionally, hominins used a sharp-edged, natural fragment of flint to process fresh animal tissue, which likely originates from the butchery of the elephant. These results provide unique, 300,000-year-old evidence for the functionally interconnected use of lithic, osseous and wood technologies. Furthermore, we document in-situ transformations of stone tools and the presence of both curational and expedient behaviors, thereby demonstrating the temporal depth of hominin activities at the lakeshore where the elephant died, and in the broader landscape as a whole.

Evidence for the cooking of fish 780,000 years ago at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel.

Although cooking is regarded as a key element in the evolutionary success of the genus Homo, impacting various biological and social aspects, when intentional cooking first began remains unknown. The early Middle Pleistocene site of Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel (marine isotope stages 18-20; ~0.78 million years ago), has preserved evidence of hearth-related hominin activities and large numbers of freshwater fish remains (>40,000). A taphonomic study and isotopic analyses revealed significant differences between the characteristics of the fish bone assemblages recovered in eight sequential archaeological horizons of Area B (Layer II-6 levels 1-7) and natural fish bone assemblages (identified in Area A). Gesher Benot Ya'aqov archaeological horizons II-6 L1-7 exhibited low fish species richness, with a clear preference for two species of large Cyprinidae (Luciobarbus longiceps and Carasobarbus canis) and the almost total absence of fish bones in contrast to the richness of pharyngeal teeth (>95%). Most of the pharyngeal teeth recovered in archaeological horizons II-6 L1-7 were spatially associated with 'phantom' hearths (clusters of burnt flint microartifacts). Size-strain analysis using X-ray powder diffraction provided evidence that these teeth had been exposed to low temperature (<500 °C), suggesting, together with the archaeological and taphonomic data, that the fish from the archaeological horizons of Area B had been cooked and consumed on site. This is the earliest evidence of cooking by hominins.

The Early Middle Palaeolithic lithic industry of Dederiyeh Cave, Northwest Syria

The Lower-to-Middle Paleolithic transition of the Levant has attracted much attention, particularly because the early Middle Paleolithic is the period when the earliest anatomically modern humans fossils known to date in Eurasia have been attested in that part of Asia . The associated lithic assemblages are a significant source of information for investigating the cultural landscape of this important transition. This paper presents a new dataset from the 2003–2009 excavations at Dederiyeh Cave, northwest of Syria. A techno-typological analysis of the lithic industry reveals a common practice of blade blank production, which corroborates the other known early Middle Paleolithic assemblages of the Levant. However, its strong emphasis on Levallois core reduction and sidescraper manufacturing is noteworthy. The significance of this finding deserves further research from multiple viewpoints, including the functional and spatio-temporal variability of hominin activities in this period. It will be also important to interpret the techno-typological diagnostics of the early Middle Paleolithic assemblage of Dederiyeh considering its geographic location at the northern end of the Levant, distant from the previously known sites in the central and southern Levant.

New site at Olduvai Gorge (AGS, Bed I, 1.84 Mya) widens the range of locations where hominins engaged in butchery

Outstanding questions about human evolution include systematic connections between critical landscape resources—such as water and food—and how these shaped the competitive and biodiverse environment(s) that our ancestors inhabited. Here, we report fossil n-alkyl lipid biomarkers and their associated δ13C values across a newly discovered Olduvai Gorge site (AGS) dated to 1.84 million years ago, enabling a multiproxy analysis of the distributions of critical local landscape resources across an explicit locus of hominin activity. Our results reveal that AGS was a seasonally waterlogged, largely unvegetated lakeside site situated near an ephemeral freshwater river surrounded by arid-adapted C4 grasses. The sparse vegetation at AGS contrasts with reconstructed (micro)habitats at the other anthropogenic sites at Olduvai Gorge, suggesting that central-provisioning places depended more heavily on water access than vegetation viz. woody plants as is often observed for modern hunter-gatherers. As hominins at AGS performed similar butchering activities as at other Bed I sites, our results suggest they did not need the shelter of trees and thus occupied a competitive position within the predatory guild.

Variations by degrees: Western European paleoenvironmental fluctuations across MIS 13–11

Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 13–11 saw a major transformation in the hominin occupation of Europe, with an expansion in the scale and geographical distribution of sites and artifact assemblages. That expansion is explored here in the context of paleoenvironmental variability, focusing on geographical and chronological trends in climatic and habitat conditions at and between key Lower Paleolithic sites in Western Europe. Climatic conditions at British sites are compared across MIS 13–11, and used to test predicted values from the Oscillayers data set. Conditions at hominin and nonhominin sites are compared to explore possible limitations in hominin tolerances during MIS 13–11. Trends in conditions are explored with reference to long-term global patterns, short-term substage events, and seasonal variations. The apparent increase in the scale of hominin activity in north-western Europe during MIS 13 is surprising in light of the relatively harsh conditions of late MIS 13, and is likely to reflect significant physiological and/or behavioral adaptations, a mild south-north temperature gradient in western Europe during MIS 13, and the relatively mild, sustained conditions spanning MIS 15–13. The expanded occupation of north-western Europe during MIS 11 probably reflects the extended mild conditions of MIS 11c, since marked seasonal temperature differences and substantial behavioral changes between hominin sites in MIS 13 and 11 are not clearly evident. Site-specific conditions in south-western Europe during MIS 11 suggest milder winters, warmer summers, and reduced seasonal variability compared to north-western Europe. Some or all of these conditions may have supported larger, core populations, as may the relatively mild conditions associated with south-western European sites during MIS 12. Finally, comparisons between north-western and north-central European sites indicate relatively small differences in seasonal temperatures, suggesting that climate may only be a partial factor behind the smaller-scale occupations of north-central Europe during MIS 13–11.

A review of Palaeolithic sites associated with gravel deposits in India

Abstract Rivers and river-borne deposits have always been a major attraction for hominins as an important source of sustenance and settlements. Hence, fluvial deposits have long been an important source of evidence for early human occupation throughout the Old World. Apart from being an important palaeoclimatic marker, fluvial sequences have provided archaeologists with frameworks for correlation, along with Palaeolithic markers discovered within them. Moreover, given the influx of sediments eroded and deposited by Indian rivers, these could have acted as a centre of hominin activities. Palaeolithic research in India has been concentrated around some of its major river valleys, which have yielded a rich record of hominin occupation. So far, 305 Palaeolithic sites have been reported from a gravel context throughout the country, yielding Lower to Upper Palaeolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic evidence. However, most of the derived evidence is secondary deposits and stands contested based on its contextuality. Nevertheless, its importance as a source of information about hominin activity cannot be underestimated. This review presents a provisional synthesis of all of the Indian Palaeolithic sites reported from gravel contexts, thereby presenting scope for future multidisciplinary research at these localities.