Hominid Activities Research Articles

Exploring Paleogeographic Conditions at TwoPaleolithic Sites inNavarino, SouthwestGreece, Dated by Optically Stimulated Luminescence

In this paper, we employed optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) dating of sediments from two archaeological sites located inNavarino,Messenia, southwesternGreece, to deduce a chronology for the archaeological sites. Archaeological surveys identified twoPaleolithic sites on fossilized coastal dunes. Chipped stone tool assemblages were identified eroding out of paleosols developed in the dunes. The assemblage from one site lacked distinct typological features and hence it was difficult to assign to a chronological period. The lithic assemblage from the other site contained artifacts that typologically can be assigned to theLevallois‐Mousterian. Previous efforts to date the artifact‐bearing sediments at these sites were unsuccessful. Using newerOSLdating methods (i.e., the Single‐Aliquot‐Regenerated Dose protocol and thermally transferred‐OSL[TT‐OSL]), we attempted to construct a chronological framework forLatePleistocene human activity in the southwestPeloponnese. The revisedOSLchronology for the first site is 28 ± 5 ka, while a luminescence age of 8 ± 1 ka for the second site only represents a later deflation event. Within the framework ofQuaternary environmental change, the location ofPaleolithic sites relative to the coast would have changed during the course of thePleistocene. As a result,Paleolithic exploitation strategies would have been strongly influenced by the changing coastal geomorphology, encouraging hominids to adapt to new distributions of resources.OSLdating of the archaeological sites allowed us to connect traces of hominid activity with climatic stadials/interstadials of the laterPleistocene derived from existing relative sea‐level curves. Ultimately, these data permitted the reconstruction of regionalLatePleistocene paleogeography. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Groundwater spring deposits as proxy for interstadials in the Levant: The chronology and climate history of the Palaeolithic cultures from Yabroud (Syria)

This paper presents the hypothesis that Dansgaard/Oeschger events can be recognized in the Levant by correlation to sedimentary layers characterized by hominid activity, specifically layers of spring deposits. Optically stimulated luminescence was used to date age several sedimentary layers of an archaeological site at Yabroud, Syria. Pollen and spores throughout an 8 m profile of the site indicate that specific layers were deposited during a warm period.

Crocodylian and mammalian carnivore feeding traces on hominid fossils from FLK 22 and FLK NN 3, Plio-Pleistocene, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

Taphonomic analysis of the Olduvai Hominid (OH) 8 left foot from FLK NN Level 3 and the OH 35 left leg from FLK Level 22 (Zinjanthropus level) in Middle Bed I, Olduvai Gorge, indicates that both were fed upon by crocodiles. Both bear extensive tooth marking, including bisected tooth marks diagnostic of crocodylian feeding. The location of the bisected tooth marks on the distal tibia and the talus indicates disarticulation of the foot by crocodiles. The broken proximal ends of the tibia and fibula are more typical of feeding by a leopard-like carnivore, as is damage to the OH 7 mandible and parietals that are associated with and may derive from the same individual as OH 8. Previous work showing a close articulation of the foot and the leg has been used to suggest that the two specimens belong to the same individual despite deriving from sites separated by 200 m and slightly different stratigraphic levels according to previous work. The location and agent of tooth marking and the nature of gross damage do not refute this hypothesis, but the punctures on the talus and distal tibia differ in size and sharpness. Recent work shows that the stratigraphic discrepancy between OH 8 and OH 35 is greater than previously thought, refuting the single-individual hypothesis. Although seemingly unlikely, this denotes that two hominids represented by rarely found leg and foot elements both lost their left foot to crocodiles at nearby sites within a 6,000 year interval. We cannot determine if the hominids were preyed upon by crocodiles or mammalian carnivores. However, the carnivore damage to them and associated faunal remains suggests that high predation risk constrained hominid activities involving discard of the stone artifacts found at these sites. This finding is inconsistent with the interpretation of the sites as home bases or living floors.

Evidence for the earliest Pleistocene hominid activity in the Nihewan Basin of northern China

The Nihewan Basin in North China contains the densest concentration of early Pleistocene Paleolithic sites outside Africa. This paper introduces a new archaeological site complex at Madigou (MDG) that was systematically excavated from 2011 to 2014 in the northeastern part of the Nihewan Basin. The site contains fossils and well-preserved stone artefacts in fluvio-lacustrine sediments. Our magnetostratigraphic results situate the MDG sedimentary sequence in the early Brunhes normal chron and the late Matuyama reverse chron, including the Jaramillo normal subchron. The MDG artifact layers are positioned within the pre-Jaramillo Matuyama chron, with an estimated age of ca. 1.2 Ma, close to the onset of Mid-Pleistocene climate transition. The MDG core and flake technology includes bipolar flaking of siliceous dolomite cobbles, and freehand flaking of chert and brecciated chert block fragments. Mammalian fauna and pollen compositions indicate that the MDG hominins lived in an open habitat varying from lightly-wooded grassland to an ecosystem dominated by sparse steppe near the shore of the Nihewan paleolake. Our combined results in the fields of archaeology, paleontology, palynology and magnetochronology suggest that innovations in technological behavior may correlate with adaptations to high environmental variability during the start of Mid-Pleistocene climate transition.

Preliminary study on the living environment of hominids at the Donggutuo site, Nihewan Basin

The Donggutuo site, situated in the east margin of Nihewan basin, is one of the most important Paleolithic sites in China, characterized by the longest excavation seasons and the most abundant cultural remains recovered in the region. Based on well-constructed sporopollen, sediment grain size analysis, magnetic susceptibility, and iron oxide analysis of the 2000–2001 excavated section, four stages of environmental change in the Nihewan Beds are identified by the authors. The results indicate four major stages of environment and climate change from 1) warm and humid forest grass to 2) temperate and humid forest grass to 3) temperate and dry forest grass to 4) warm and humid forest, which is suitable for hominid occupation. The changes correspond to the stages of lake transgression and regression. The environment after the lake died out away has been cold and dry boschveld. The hominid activities at the site took place in the Early Pleistocene (1.10 Ma), which corresponds to the early three environmental stages. Therefore, it can be inferred that the early hominids adapted to the relatively low lake level episodes through activities involving sporadic stone tool making, procuring of raw materials for tools, concentrating stone artifacts, and hunting and butchering. In conclusion, the results will be of great significance to research regarding the relationship between hominid occupation and environmental changes as well as the adaptive behaviors of early humans at the Donggutuo site.

Late Middle Pleistocene climate in southwestern China: inferences from the stratigraphic record of Panxian Dadong Cave, Guizhou

Panxian Dadong Cave, situated in the subtropical zone of southwestern China, preserves a fan-like sedimentary sequence close to its entrance that spans the period between MIS 8 and 5 (300–130 ka). The frequent alternation of flowstone formation, cementation, clastic deposition, and frost activity in the depositional sequence makes it ideal for reconstructing the environmental conditions prevailing during the later Middle Pleistocene on the Guizhou Plateau. Macroscopic and microscopic sedimentary analyses determine that clastic deposits were entering the cave in the form of intermittent cohesive debris flows and sheetflows during cold and relatively dry climatic conditions when vegetation cover was reduced. Interlayered impure flowstones were forming during wetter phases but still under glacial conditions. Seasonally freezing temperatures are deduced from the frequent occurrence of cycles of well-developed freeze–thaw features affecting both the clastic parts of the sequence and the flowstones as they were deposited. The described depositional processes were responsible for lateral redistribution on the fan surface of bone remains and lithic artifacts that were accumulating on the surface as a result of hominid activities. During the intervening interglacial stages (MIS 7 and possibly MIS 5) clastic deposition was considerably reduced and only thin flowstone caps and weathering manganese–iron crusts were forming. It is suggested that precipitation was much higher during glacial intervals than interglacials under a predominantly cold climate. Dadong Cave provides a good example of very cold and wet climatic conditions during glacials in the subtropics of East Asia.

Testing the “shift in the balance of power” hypothesis at Swartkrans, South Africa: Hominid cave use and subsistence behavior in the Early Pleistocene

C.K. Brain documented two interesting patterns in the Pleistocene faunas of Swartkrans Cave, South Africa: (1) The earliest depositional units, Members 1 and 2, preserve high numbers of hominid fossils, while the numbers drop sharply in the more recent Member 3. (2) Burned bone specimens, which seem to have been altered in fires tended by hominids, appear for the first time in Member 3. It was suggested that mastery of fire provided a “shift in the balance of power”, allowing hominids to carry out activities in the cave for the first time unmolested by predators. A lack of butchered bones in Members 1 and 2 and their presence in Member 3 provided support for the hypothesis. However, we have now identified butchered bones in all three units. Further, our findings reveal a lack of variability in butchery patterns through time at Swartkrans; in all cases hominids appear to have been proficient carcass foragers. The real “shift” at Swartkrans does not appear to be one of eventual hominid dominance over carnivores, but rather one of a predominance of leopards at Swartkrans in Member 1 times to the alternating presence of leopards and hyenas in Members 2 and 3. Consistent leopard presence in Member 1 seems to have discouraged hominid activity in the vicinity of the cave. In contrast, by the time Members 2 and 3 were forming hominids may have temporarily used the cave, taking advantage of those periods of carnivore absence.

Faunal remains from Porc-Epic: Paleoecological and zooarchaeological investigations from a Middle Stone Age site in southeastern Ethiopia

The Middle Stone Age (MSA) sediments of Porc-Epic Cave near Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, have produced a large assemblage of archaeofaunal remains dating to the later periods of the Late Pleistocene. As one of the few MSA faunal assemblages from East Africa subject to detailed analysis, it provides rare insight into the foraging behavior of the early modern humans in this region. The MSA fauna include taxa that were not historically present in the area, with the occurrence of reduncines and alcelaphines indicating widespread grasslands and proximity to a perennial source of water. The faunal analysis examined several lines of evidence, including breakage patterns, surface modification, and skeletal-element representation. By incorporating comparisons with multiple actualistic data sets, the analysis of the assemblage demonstrates that, while the influence of carnivores and other biotic agents was evident, the faunal remains were accumulated primarily by hominid activity. The skeletal-element representation at Porc-Epic includes an abundance of high utility bones, in contrast to the predominance of “head-and-foot” elements documented at other MSA and Middle Paleolithic (MP) sites. The MSA occupants of Porc-Epic effectively exploited a wide range of prey with more emphasis on small- and medium-sized mammals.

New estimates of tooth mark and percussion mark frequencies at the FLK Zinj site: the carnivore-hominid-carnivore hypothesis falsified

Traditional interpretations of hominid carcass acquisition strategies revolve around the debate over whether early hominids hunted or scavenged. A popular version of the scavenging scenario is the carnivore-hominid-carnivore hypothesis, which argues that hominids acquired animal resources primarily through passive opportunistic scavenging from felid-defleshed carcasses. Its main empirical support comes from the analysis of tooth mark frequency and distribution at the FLK Zinj site reported by Blumenschine (Blumenschine, 1995, J. Hum. Evol. 29, 21–51), in which it was shown that long bone mid-shafts exhibited a high frequency of tooth marks, only explainable if felids had preceded hominids in carcass defleshing. The present work shows that previous estimates of tooth marks on the FLK Zinj assemblage were artificially high, since natural biochemical marks were mistaken for tooth marks. Revised estimates are similar to those obtained in experiments in which hyenas intervene after humans in bone modification. Furthermore, analyses of percussion marks, notches, and breakage patterns provide data which are best interpreted as the results of hominid activity (hammerstone percussion and marrow extraction), based on experimentally-derived referential frameworks. These multiple lines of evidence support previous analyses of cut marks and their anatomical distribution; all indicate that hominids had early access to fleshed carcasses that were transported, processed, and accumulated at the FLK Zinj site.

New Light on the Earliest Hominid Occupation in East Asia

New Light on the Earliest Hominid Occupation in East Asia

Stegodon orientalis from Panxian Dadong, a Middle Pleistocene archaeological site in Guizhou, South China: taphonomy, population structure and evidence for human interactions

Panxian Dadong is a large karstic cave in the mountains of western Guizhou province. Archaeological excavations at Dadong have yielded a rich Ailuropoda-Stegodon faunal sample in association with stone artifacts and human remains dating to 130–300 ka. Stegodon orientalis is an important component of the faunal sample, which is dominated by large-bodied mammals. This study describes the sample of stegodont dental and skeletal material, provides an age at death profile for the stegodont sample, and evaluates the results in terms of taphonomy, site formation processes, and comparisons with other Middle Pleistocene archaeological sites with evidence for human use of proboscideans. The Dadong stegodont sample consists primarily of dental remains of young individuals less than 12 years of age with a minimum of 12 stegodonts represented. Based on the available archaeological, faunal and taphonomic data, the stegodont faunal assemblage at Dadong is probably a result of hominid activities (either hunting or scavenging) and the natural accumulation of young stegodonts from accidental deaths. This study supports the results of other analyses (Schepartz et al., 2003) that suggest humans played an important role in the formation of the Dadong faunal assemblage.

Human remains and the environment of Early Pleistocene in the Nihewan Basin

A new Early Pleistocene Paleolithic site was found in July 2001 in the Nihewan Basin, Hebei Province. Totally 500 mammal specimens assigned to 21 species and 5 lithic artifacts were collected. The coexistence of Allophaiomys deucalion , Borsodia chinensis and Yangia tingi provides important evidence of chronology. On the basis of the comparison of mammalian fauna, the date of Paleolithic artifacts is probably earlier than 1.8 MaBP, possibly 2.0 MaBP. This is the earliest evidence of hominid activity found so far in North China. The hominid at that time in the Nihewan Basin lived in an environment of arid grasslands with scattered trees of temperate zone. This discovery is significant to the study of human origin and cultural development.

The Structure and Morphotectonics of the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov Area, Northern Dead Sea Rift, Israel

Geological, geomorphological, and morphotectonic studies at the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov Acheulean site, Northern Jordan Valley, provide: 1) a unique opportunity to establish the ecological background of hominid behavior during the early stages of widespread human occupation; 2) crucial data for understanding the paleo-environment and the various processes that affected the area near the Gesher Benot Ya'aqov site; and 3) a basis for further comprehensive research in the region. Quaternary tectonic activity near the Acheulean archeological site has produced a complex local setting that controls the surrounding landscape. Tectonic activity formed the Benot Ya'aqov embayment, which attracted hominids and a variety of other fauna. Sediments of the Benot Ya'akov formation deposited in the embayment facilitated excellent preservation of the remnants of Acheulean hominid activities and of abundant floral and faunal remains. The formation was subsequently affected by faulting and folding. Local uplift ended the deposition of lacustrine sediments in the embayment of Hula Valley Basin and caused erosion and vertical incision of the Jordan River that resulted in the capture of the Rosh Pinna River and the exposure of the Benot Ya'akov formation. These deposits are found in different structural positions along the north–south oriented morphotectonic embayment. The outcrops contain numerous archeological sites, giving the study area an unusually high potential for future hominid discoveries.

Trouble in the Japanese Lower and Middle Palaeolithic

The debate about the occupation of the Japanese archipelago before 30,000 years ago was apparently resolved with the discovery and investigation of a series of sites in north eastern Japan such as Babadan A and latterly Kamitakamori, which seemed to provide securely dated contexts for hominid activity dating to before 500,000 years ago. These discoveries were thrown into doubt when one of the major protagonists in the debate was discovered planting artefacts. The subsequent scandal, which has rocked Japanese archaeology to its core, was widely reported in the media and a full-scale investigation is still underway. This paper summarises information from some of the sites claimed to be Lower and Middle Palaeolithic, and sets them in a broader East Asian context.

Taphonomy of the fossil hominid bones from the Acheulean site of Castel di Guido near Rome, Italy

Castel di Guido near Rome is one of the few open air Middle Pleistocene European sites that has yielded hominid skeletal remains associated with fossil fauna and Acheulean implements. The fossil hominid bones include two femoral shafts, respectively designated Castel di Guido-1 (CdG-1) and CdG-2, an occipital fragment (CdG-3), a right maxilla lacking teeth (CdG-4), a portion of right parietal (CdG-5), a right temporal (CdG-6), and a fragment of left parietal vault (CdG-7). CdG-1 through CdG-4 were collected in 1979–1982 on the surface, together with fossil fauna, where ploughing incised fossiliferous tuffaceous sands. Excavations conducted in the same area from 1980 to 1990 led to the discovery of CdG-5, CdG-6 and CdG-7 within the tuffaceous sands, which were shown to overlay a bone-bearing paleosurface, with abundant evidence of hominid activities. The Castel di Guido hominid assemblage poses intriguing taphonomic questions. The analysis of the physical evidence offered by the bone surfaces, reported in the present study, indicates that the hominid skeletal remains were heavily fragmented before fossilization and exposed to carnivores and rodents, as well as to trampling and/or friction in abrasive sediment. Although definitive conclusions cannot be reached on the basis of the available evidene, it is possible that clusters of incisions localized on specific regions of the Castel di Guido fossil hominid bones might reflect deliberate human manipulations.

Age profiles of rhino fauna from the Middle Pleistocene Nanjing man site, south China—explained by the rhino specimens of living species

AbstractA total of 60 pieces of rhino materials have been identified from the Nanjing Man site. Morphologically, they belong to the species Dicerorhinus mercki. Among the materials, 40 pieces are broken bones, and 20 are isolated teeth or jaw bones (totally comprising 41 tooth units). Among the teeth, 74% are deciduous, most of them attached to jaws. Other isolated teeth are not greatly worn, meaning they were not naturally replaced, so they represent juvenile animals. Because the skeletons are completely isolated and most of them are broken, their death can not be attributed to a natural trap. Therefore, it is very probable that hominid activities were associated with rhinos at this site. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

The Refitting of Lithics from Unit 4C, Area Q2/D Excavations at Boxgrove, West Sussex, England

The refitting of lithic artifacts from Area 22/D, Boxgrove has established that the artifact concentrations were not merely the result of natural disturbances, but surviving evidence related to hominid activity. The reconstruction of flake reduction sequences, analysis of soft and hard hammer percussion modes, and Observation of the spatial distribution of lithics across the landscape have provided important information regarding the Organization of these early humans in the production of stone tools.

Paleolandscape variation and Early Pleistocene hominid activities: Members 1 and 7, Olorgesailie Formation, Kenya

Grass woven baskets is a famous feature of Gumugou cemetery (3800 BP), an early Bronze Age necropolis in Tarim basin, northwestern China. They were suggested to be used for storage of liquid foods, for example gruel, ephedra soup or milk, however this notion has not been supported by analytical facts. We applied comprehensive multi-technique analytical approach, including FT-IR, proteomics, GC–MS and starch grains analyses to characterize minute amount of dried organic film preserved on the inner surface of one of the Gumugou grass woven baskets. The analysis revealed the presence of Bovidae milk proteins and traces of lactic acid bacteria. Together with the relative abundance of detected caseins and whey proteins it suggested that the organic deposit in the woven basket was strained sour milk. No ephedra biomarkers or starch grains were found. The protein composition of Gumugou sample differed from solid dairy products recently discovered at the nearby Xiaohe Cemetery. We speculate that the alterations in local dairy technologies might be the result of two processes: climatic changes in the region of Tarim basin and admix of early European settlers with lactose-intolerant Eastern ethnic group. European ancestry of Gumugou inhabitants suggested that the milking practice in the Tarim region was promoted by the eastward migration of European population which was predominantly lactose–persistent. Xiaohe site (3600 BP) was inhabited by a West-East admixed community for whom solid dairy products became a dietary requirement that offered its inhabitants an advantage in better adaptation to the worsening climate.

Paleolandscape variation and Early Pleistocene hominid activities: Members 1 and 7, Olorgesailie Formation, Kenya

Paleolandscape research tests for variation in the spatial distribution of hominid artefacts and establishes the association of hominid activities with paleoenvironmental features over distances of 100s to 1000s of meters. This approach requires (1) precise definition of narrow stratigraphic intervals based on sedimentary criteria that can be documented over a broad area, and (2) excavation of these intervals in order to establish taphonomic and paleoenvironmental contexts. In this report, excavations of three target intervals within the early Pleistocene deposits (992 to 780ka) of the Olorgesailie basin are described. Assessment of time-averaging and paleolandscape structure shows that each target interval represents a relatively brief period (≤1000yrs) and exhibits a unique distribution of environmental features (e.g., topographic gradients, channels, soil development). Stone artefacts and fossilized animal bones are distributed nonrandomly in each interval, and include clusters that were five to 293 times more densely concentrated than the laterally equivalent background scatter. A paleosol in upper Member 1 preserves a relatively continuous distribution of artefacts and fossils, in contrast with the more patchy distribution in two intervals of lower Member 7. We infer that the difference between the two members reflects a real variation in hominid land use—either a response to local environmental differences or perhaps a change through time in hominid interaction with the environment. By expanding the comparative analysis to diverse basins, it should be possible to test for broader evolutionary change in hominid activities. Examples drawn from East African Pliocene and early Pleistocene sites suggest that evolutionary change in land use entailed (1) wider ranging of hominids and longer distances of stone transport, (2) expansion of tool-assisted behaviors to a wider diversity of environmental settings, and (3) more strongly focused placement of particular artefact forms (e.g., bifaces) in different areas of the landscape in response to specific environmental features, such as lava outcrops, stream channels, and lake margins. \\

Research on Late Pliocene Oldowan Sites at Kanjera South, Kenya

The late Pliocene is notable for the appearance of two new hominid genera as well as the first archaeological sites, generally attributed to the Oldowan Industrial Complex. However, the behavioral ecology of Oldowan hominids has been little explored, particularly at sites older than 2·0Ma. Moreover, debates on Oldowan hominid foraging ecology and behavior have centered on data from only two regions, and often from single site levels. Here we describe the preliminary results of our investigation of Oldowan occurrences at Kanjera South. These occurrences preserve the oldest known traces of hominid activity in southwestern Kenya, and unlike most of the Oldowan sites in the 2·0–2·5Ma time interval, artefacts are found in spatial association with a well-preserved fauna.In 1996 and 1997, this project initiated the first excavation program for Kanjera South. Magneto- and biostratigraphy indicate that deposition began approximately 2·2Ma, substantially earlier than previously thought. At Excavation 1, artefacts were found in spatial association with a taxonomically diverse faunal assemblage in Beds KS-1 and KS-2. Excavation 2 yielded a partial hippopotamus axial skeleton with artefacts in KS-3. Cores from both sites were incidentally flaked and represent a Mode I lithic technology indistinguishable from the Oldowan. Approximately 15% of the artefacts were manufactured from non-local raw materials, indicating a flow of resources into the area.Stable isotopic analysis of KS-1 and KS-2 pedogenic carbonates suggests that the Excavation 1 assemblages formed in a relatively open (>75% C4grass) habitat. The Excavation 1 and 2 faunas contain a high proportion of equids relative to Oldowan accumulations from Bed I Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Beds KS-1 and KS-2 thus preserve traces of Oldowan hominid activities in a more open setting than has been previously documented.