Homicide In England Research Articles

Legislation Related to School Shootings in Great Britain

Introduction: school shootings remain a highly relevant topic for investigation because the social environment and interpersonal relationships play a leading role in the formation of aggressive intentions of perpetrators. The purpose of this study is to provide an overview of British legislation related to school shootings. Historically, the law of homicide in the United Kingdom has had a number of distinguishing marks. Structurally, the Scots law of homicide resembles the law of England and Wales because the offences of murder and culpable homicide in Scotland closely resemble the offences of murder and manslaughter in England and Wales. Methods: empirical methods of comparison; specific scientific methods: legal dogmatic method and method of legal norm interpretation. Results: the paper describes the law of homicide in England and Wales, including the common law, the relevant sections of British legislation and the proposals of the Law Commission for the creation of a new Homicide Act with a three‐tier structure of general homicide. This overview also encompasses the punishment regime for murder by the Criminal Justice Act 2003 and Sentencing Act 2020. The law of England and Wales is compared with the law of Scotland, especially its crimes of homicide, sentencing guidelines and juvenile justice. Also, the article deals with rules concerning gun ownership. The 1996 Dunblane school shooting in the United Kingdom played a critical role in this issue as it sparked a campaign to change gun laws, which resulted in British lawmakers banning private possession of handguns.

Patterns of mental health service use among perpetrators of domestic homicide: descriptive study of Domestic Homicide Reviews in England and Wales

Aims and method We used data from Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs) to describe the patterns of mental health service use by perpetrators of domestic homicide in England and Wales. In 186 DHR reports we compared the characteristics of perpetrators who accessed mental health services with those of perpetrators who did not. Separate analyses were conducted for perpetrators of intimate partner homicide (IPH) and family homicide. Results Over two-thirds (64.5%, n = 120) of the perpetrators had accessed mental healthcare before the homicide. Perpetrators of IPH who had used mental health services compared with those who had not were more likely to have a history of substance misuse, contact with the criminal justice system and a history of self-harm or suicide attempts. Clinical implications Our findings support the need for health services, particularly mental health, addictions and primary care, to take an assertive role in the prevention of domestic violence and abuse by identifying patients who are potential perpetrators of domestic violence and abuse.

Individualization and the decline of homicide: England 1250–1750

A key issue in criminology is to account for variation in rates of violence across time and place. An important variable largely neglected in the literature is individualism. Building on theoretical ideas proposed by Durkheim, Black, and Baumgartner, we illustrate the role of increased individualism with a case study: the decline of homicide in England, 1250–1750. The qualitative historical materials we present reveal the growth of more individualized conflicts evident in less third-party partisan intervention and a reduced concern with honor. More individualized conflicts were, in turn, a product of a more individualized society, one characterized by increased social distance and mobility. As conflicts individualized they became less lethal, resulting in declining aggregate rates of homicide. Although the case study is historical, our argument has implications for understanding contemporary criminal violence.

Inside the black box: domestic homicide reviews as a source of data

Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs) are a statutory review process to better understand domestic homicide in England and Wales. As a policy intervention, DHRs are intended to build a picture of the circumstances before such deaths and identify gaps in practice, policy and system response. The rationale is that this learning can improve response to domestic violence and abuse and reduce the likelihood of future homicides. However, little is known about how the DHR process operates, including how knowledge is produced or its subsequent use, including any outcomes. In effect, for the most part, DHRs are a ‘black box’. Yet, researchers are increasingly using DHR reports as a source of data. By locating ourselves within these processes, this article explores the implications of limited engagement with DHRs as a process of knowledge generation to date. It focuses on the implications for researchers, in particular the epistemological and methodological issues that arise, before considering what this might mean for policy and practice. It identifies recommendations to address key gaps in the understanding and use of DHRs for research purposes.

Risk factors for intimate partner homicide in England and Wales.

Intimate partner homicides are often situated within the context of domestic abuse, and although less prevalent than domestic abuse, there have been several multi‐agency approaches to understanding the risk for these fatal crimes. Domestic Homicide Reviews (DHRs) were introduced in 2011 to provide information to help with assessing such risk. This paper aims to analyse DHRs in England and Wales to investigate/determine risk factors for domestic homicide following intimate partner abuse. All publicly available DHRs published between July 2011 and November 2020 where the victim and perpetrator were or had been intimate partners (N = 263) were retrieved from Community Safety Partnership websites in England and Wales. A quantitative design was used to extract data from DHRs, and descriptive and inferential statistics were generated by SPSS 26. Findings identified risk factors relating to domestic abuse, including stalking, separation, and the victim being in a new relationship. Sociodemographic risk factors included higher levels of deprivation, lower income and higher barriers to housing and services. This highlights the role of both individual and sociodemographic factors in domestic homicides, and particularly the need for greater socioeconomic security for victims of domestic abuse. In conclusion, though much of the data is in line with previous research, our analysis highlights the pivotal role of regional poverty, with comfortable socioeconomic conditions offering protection against intimate partner homicides. This research suggests important directions for future research and makes a valuable contribution to a more in‐depth understanding of the relationship between domestic abuse and intimate partner homicide.

The typology of parricide and the role of mental illness: Data-driven approach.

Parricide is a rare type of homicide in which mental illness is often an important factor. The aims of this study were (a) to describe the characteristics of parricide offenders with a focus on mental illness and clinical care and (b) to examine Heide's widely used typology of parricide through a data-driven approach. We analyzed all homicides in England and Wales between 1997 and 2014. Parricide offenders in our sample were most often male, unmarried, and unemployed, with a third of offenders diagnosed with schizophrenia; 28% had been in contact with mental health services before the offense. The latent class analysis resulted in three types of parricide offenders: middle-aged with affective disorder, previously abused, and seriously mentally Ill, which confirmed, to an extent, Heide's typology. Health and social care services should actively engage with carers of people with mental illness and support to those caring for older relatives and victims of abuse.

Mental disorder in people convicted of homicide: long-term national trends in rates and court outcome.

Homicide rates have fallen markedly in the UK over the past decade. There has been little research on whether homicides by people with mental disorder have contributed to this downward trend. Furthermore, there is limited information on trends in court outcomes for people with mental disorder who commit homicide. To examine trends in general population homicide and homicide by people with mental disorder, and to explore court outcome. We conducted a national, consecutive case series of homicide in England and Wales (1997-2015). Data were received from the Home Office Statistics Unit of Home Office Science. Clinical information was obtained from psychiatric reports and mental health services. There has been a fall in the homicide rate in England and Wales since 2008. Despite this, the relative contribution of mental disorder as a proportion of all homicide has increased. Our findings also showed the inappropriate management of people with serious mental illness convicted of homicide. Of those who committed homicide and were diagnosed with schizophrenia, a third were imprisoned, and there was a marked fall in hospital order referrals. We found this to be linked to substance misuse comorbidity. The proportional increase in homicide by people with schizophrenia suggests more complex factors may be driving rates, such as substance misuse. Addressing substance misuse comorbidity and maintaining engagement with services may help prevent patient homicide. Despite their complex needs, people with serious mental illness continue to be imprisoned. Improvements in assessment and the timely transfer of prisoners to health services are required.

Investigating homicide offender typologies based on their clinical histories and crime scene behaviour patterns

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to identify offender typologies based on aspects of the offenders’ psychopathology and their associations with crime scene behaviours using data derived from the National Confidential Enquiry into Suicide and Safety in Mental Health concerning homicides in England and Wales committed by offenders in contact with mental health services in the year preceding the offence (n=759).Design/methodology/approachThe authors used multiple correspondence analysis to investigate the interrelationships between the variables and hierarchical agglomerative clustering to identify offender typologies. Variables describing: the offenders’ mental health histories; the offenders’ mental state at the time of offence; characteristics useful for police investigations; and patterns of crime scene behaviours were included.FindingsResults showed differences in the offenders’ histories in relation to their crime scene behaviours. Further, analyses revealed three homicide typologies: externalising, psychosis and depression.Practical implicationsThese typologies may assist the police during homicide investigations by: furthering their understanding of the crime or likely suspect; offering insights into crime patterns; provide advice as to what an offender’s offence behaviour might signify about his/her mental health background. Findings suggest information concerning offender psychopathology may be useful for offender profiling purposes in cases of homicide offenders with schizophrenia, depression and comorbid diagnosis of personality disorder and alcohol/drug dependence.Originality/valueEmpirical studies with an emphasis on offender profiling have almost exclusively focussed on the inference of offender demographic characteristics. This study provides a first step in the exploration of offender psychopathology and its integration to the multivariate analysis of offence information for the purposes of investigative profiling of homicide by identifying the dominant patterns of mental illness within homicidal behaviour.

Investigative challenges relating to gang-related homicide: senior investigating officers’ perspectives

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to provide the reader with senior investigating officer (SIO) perspectives of their understanding of gang-related homicide and associated investigative challenges.Design/methodology/approachA phenomenological design was utilised in this study. In sum, 15 SIOs from the Metropolitan Police Service were interviewed using a semi-structured interview and analysed using thematic analysis.FindingsIt was found that the original typology of “gang homicide” might be too narrow and focus should be paid to “gang-related homicide”, characterised via motive behind the offence. This type of homicide exhibited specific characteristics (e.g. violent nature, large potential scene and pool of suspects) and investigative challenges which made it different from other types of homicide (e.g. complexity, need for more resources, managing unwilling witnesses, managing media interest, specific evidence challenges, need for thorough risk assessments). The need for expertise in the deployment of officers was highlighted and related to the desire for more continuing professional development (CPD).Practical implicationsGang-related homicide is especially challenging, but due to its volume, SIOs in London developed a sort of “muscle memory” – something that other police services do not have, even though the “gang problem” is spreading outside of metropolitan areas. Support for changes (e.g. in the utility of community impact assessment) and non-standard procedures (e.g. consideration of covert operations early on) should be discussed in further training and manual development. More attention needs to be paid to the synthesis of experience, expertise and science, SIOs being especially interested in debriefs and CPD opportunities. Multi-agency training is key for homicide investigators, relating to the complex nature of gang-related homicide and relevant safeguarding issues. Resourcing is a clear issue relating to the increase in gang-related homicide, as well as its investigation.Originality/valueThis is the first research into investigative challenges of gang-related homicide in England and Wales, and the findings can be utilised by all police services who may be dealing with gangs in their area. The findings can also support calls for change and development within services.

Real Lives and Lost Lives: Making Sense of \u2018Locked in\u2019 Responses to Intimate Partner Homicide

The problem of intimate partner homicide is featuring increasingly on national and international policy agendas. Over the last 40 years, responses to this issue have been characterised by preventive strategies (including ‘positive’ policing; the proliferation of risk assessment tools, and multi-agency working) and post-event analyses (including police inquiries and domestic homicide reviews). In different ways, each of these responses has become ‘locked in’ to policies. Drawing on an analysis of police inquiries into domestic homicides in England and Wales over a 10-year period, this paper will explore the nature of these ‘locked in’ responses and will suggest that complexity theory offers a useful lens through which to make sense of them and the ongoing consistent patterning of intimate partner homicide more generally. The paper will suggest this lens in embracing what is known and unknown affords a different way of thinking about and responding to this problem.

The Charney Sensitivity of Homicides to Atmospheric CO2: A Parody

Homicides in England and Wales 1898-2003 are studied against the atmospheric carbon dioxide data for the same period. The Charney Equilibrium Sensitivity of homicides is found to be λ=1.7 thousands of additional annual homicides for each doubling of atmospheric CO2. The sensitivity estimate is supported by a strong correlation of ρ=0.95 and detrended correlation of ρ=0.86. The analysis illustrates that spurious proportionalities in time series data in conjunction with inadequate statistical rigor in the interpretation of empirical Charney climate sensitivity estimates impedes the orderly accumulation of knowledge in this line of research.

Intimate Partner Homicide in England and Wales 2011\u20132013: Pathways to Prediction from Multi-agency Domestic Homicide Reviews

Research QuestionWhat pathways to more accurate prediction of intimate partner homicide (IPH) can be found by reviewing two years of official Domestic Homicide Reviews in England and Wales?DataThis study conducted a detailed review of investigative source material, police database information and the official independent author reviews of the 188 cases of intimate partner homicide recorded in England and Wales between April 2011 and March 2013.MethodsDescriptive analytical techniques were used to explore the prevalence of various characteristics of victims, offenders and relationships in these cases, with special attention given to offender suicide ideation as a precursor to the crimes.FindingsOffenders in these cases were 86% male, with high rates of both chronic substance abuse (61%) and prior reported offending (50%) against their homicide victim. The most disproportionately prevalent characteristic appears to be that 40% of the male offenders were known by someone, but often not to police, as suffering suicidal ideation, self-harm or attempted suicides. The prevalence of that marker, while not measureable in the general population, is over four times higher than the pre-offence police indications of suicidal tendencies across 80 domestic homicides in Leicestershire (Button et al., 2017).ConclusionsIt is plausible that many more intimate partner homicides might be accurately predicted, and perhaps prevented, with more public investment in obtaining data on suicidal indicators and more proactive treatment of domestic abuse offenders known to suffer suicidal tendencies.

Spurious Correlations in Time Series Data: A Note

Unrelated time series data can show spurious correlations by virtue of a shared drift in the long term trend. The spuriousness of such correlations is demonstrated with examples. The SP500 stock market index, GDP at current prices for the USA, and the number of homicides in England and Wales in the sample period 1968 to 2002 are used for this demonstration. Detrended analysis shows the expected result that at an annual time scale the GDP and SP500 series are related and that neither of these time series is related to the homicide series. Correlations between the source data and those between cumulative values show spurious correlations of the two financial time series with the homicide series. These results have implications for empirical evidence that attributes changes in temperature and carbon dioxide levels in the surface-atmosphere system to fossil fuel emissions.

Punitiveness and political culture: Notes from some small countries

Green’s (2007, 2008, 2009) recent comparative work on child-on-child homicides in England and Norway has drawn attention to political and cultural explanations to account for differences in levels of state punitiveness. His work finds support for the distinction made by Arend Lijphart (1999) between consensus and majoritarian democracy, through his argument that English majoritarian political culture created powerful incentives to exploit the homicide of James Bulger in ways that were not present in Norway. Drawing on comparative research in Ireland, Scotland and New Zealand, this article joins with Green in enlisting political culture as an important explanatory variable yet challenges the usefulness of Lijphart’s typology in explaining penal difference.

2740 – Diminished responsibility in england and wales: historical and current perspectives

Diminished Responsibility has formed an important aspect of the law of homicide in England and Wales since 1957. It acts as a partial defence to murder and if successful, reduces the charge to manslaughter. Despite operating for over fifty years in England and Wales, it was subjected to regular criticism leading to the enactment of a revised plea. This paper examines diminished responsibility, the elements of the revised plea and its legal/ clinical impact. The core components of the old plea involved abnormality of mind substantially impairing mental responsibility. However, the obscure wording, the lack of psychiatrically recognized concepts and expert-jury role confusion led to a number of proposed reforms to the plea. The revised plea which came into force in 2010 consists of four limbs- abnormality of mental functioning, recognized medical condition, substantial impairment of mental ability and an explanation/causation requirement. Although the new plea has intended to accommodate medical advances and modernize and clarify the law, its scope has been largely narrowed. Academics have criticized the explanation/causation requirement for being too complex to prove and so restrictive that satisfying an insanity plea might be easier. Concern has been expressed that more contested cases and murder convictions would result from this restriction in the plea's scope. Cases such as mercy-killing and battered spouses which previously could be dealt with ‘sympathetically’, might now be excluded. Interestingly, role confusion continues to be present with medical experts treading onto the jury's territory, opining on legal issues.

A population-based study of juvenile perpetrators of homicide in England and Wales

This study aimed to describe the social, behavioural and offence characteristics of all convicted perpetrators of homicide aged 17 and under; to examine their previous contact with mental health services, and to discuss strategies for homicide prevention. An eight-year (1996–2004) sample of 363 juvenile homicide perpetrators in England and Wales was examined. The majority of perpetrators were male, used a sharp instrument, and most victims were acquaintances or strangers. Over half had previously offended. A history of alcohol and/or drug misuse was common, as was the prevalence of family dysfunction, abuse, educational difficulties or discipline problems. Previous contact with mental health services was rare. Earlier intervention targeting social and psychological adversity and substance misuse could help to reduce the level of risk for future violence, and may reduce homicide rates among juveniles. Strengthening engagement with young offenders and increasing resources to prevent recidivism may also be beneficial.

Methods of homicide in England and Wales: a comparison by diagnostic group

Background: International literature has examined the offence characteristics of homicide in the general population, but there has been limited research investigating diagnostic differences between perpetrators who commit homicide by differing methods. Objective: To investigate the methods of homicide by people with different psychiatric diagnoses and to explore the offence characteristics of perpetrators with schizophrenia, in a seven-year (1997–2003) national sample of homicide perpetrators in England and Wales. Results: Of the 3930 homicide perpetrators identified, over a third (36%) used a sharp instrument. The use of firearms was rare. Methods of homicide differed significantly between diagnostic groups. Perpetrators with schizophrenia were more likely to use a sharp instrument and predominantly killed a family member or spouse in the home; a significant majority were mentally ill at the time of the offence. Perpetrators diagnosed with affective disorder were more likely to use strangulation or suffocation. Alcohol dependent perpetrators used hitting or kicking significantly more often, primarily to kill acquaintances. Finally, drug dependent perpetrators were more likely to use non-violent methods, particularly poisoning. Conclusion: Methods of homicide are affected not only by the social and behavioural characteristics of the perpetrator and victim, but also by the perpetrator's psychiatric history and diagnosis.

Data Suggest Treatment Reduces Homicides Linked to Mental Illness

Back to table of contents Previous article Next article Professional NewsFull AccessData Suggest Treatment Reduces Homicides Linked to Mental IllnessJoan Arehart-TreichelJoan Arehart-TreichelSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:17 Oct 2008https://doi.org/10.1176/pn.43.20.0009Ever since Jack the Ripper terrorized young women in Victorian London, murders in England have captured the imagination of the public.Yet good statistics on the annual prevalence rate of murders in England and Wales were not readily available before 1957. After that, they indicate that the annual prevalence rate of murders in England and Wales has risen until, by 2000, there were more than 1.5 homicide convictions per 100,000 population.In contrast, the annual prevalence rate of murders by people with mental illness in England and Wales rose steadily from 1957 until the mid-1970s, but then declined.These findings on homicide trends were published in the August British Journal of Psychiatry.Have such trends also been documented in other countries? Apparently not to any great extent. The lead researcher of this study, Matthew Large, M.D., a psychiatrist in private practice in Sydney, Australia, told Psychiatric News, “There are no Australian data—hence my examination of United Kingdom data. There are also no United States data that I can find. There may well be some unpublished data from northern Europe, but I have not been able to access it.”Just because such data aren't available, of course, doesn't rule out the possibility that homicides by people with mental illness have also been declining in countries other than England and Wales. And if there is a general international trend in this direction, what could be the explanation? Essentially that “treatment [of the seriously mentally ill] prevents homicide,” Large said.In fact, a study headed by one of Large's collaborators, Jenny Shaw, Ph.D., and published in the November 2006 Psychiatric Services, suggests the same conclusion. Shaw and her colleagues found that of the 1,594 individuals convicted of homicide in England and Wales between 1996 and 1999, 85 (5 percent) had schizophrenia, and that out of these 85, only 43 (51 percent) had received any treatment for their illness during the year preceding their commission of murder.Large and colleagues also conducted a study on this subject in New South Wales, Australia, he said, and there, too, they found that “most homicide offenders with psychosis had not been treated.” Those findings appeared in the May 2007 Medical Journal of Australia.Of course, making sure that people with serious mental illness receive treatment can be a tall order in any country, Large admitted. However, meeting that challenge can be either impeded or eased by a country's legal requirements, he pointed out. For example, under Australian law, as under the law in many American states, treatment cannot be forced on seriously mentally ill people unless they are shown to be dangerous. This requirement“ makes no sense at all,” he said, since “predictions of dangerousness are very inaccurate, and prediction of homicide is not possible.” Yet the United Kingdom, in contrast, has no such legal requirement for proof of potential dangerousness, he said.The study had no outside funding.An abstract of “Homicide Due to Mental Disorder in England and Wales Over 50 Years” is posted at<http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/193/2/130>.▪ ISSUES NewArchived

Homicide due to mental disorder in England and Wales over 50 years

It has been stated that rates of homicide due to mental disorder are constant over time. To examine whether there were changes in the rates of homicide due to mental disorder over time, and whether changes in these rates were associated with changes in the rates of other homicides in England and Wales. Examination of four sets of official homicide statistics from England and Wales from 1946 to 2004. The rate of total homicide and the rate of homicide due to mental disorder rose steadily until the mid-1970s. From then there was a reversal in the rate of homicides attributed to mental disorder, which declined to historically low levels, while other homicides continued to rise. The reasons for the rise and fall in homicides attributed to mental disorder are not clear. The earlier increase in such homicides may have been due to the same sociological factors that caused the increase in other homicides over that time. The subsequent decline may have been due to improvements in psychiatric treatments and service organisation. Another possibility is that there has been an informal change to the legal tests for the finding of homicide due to mental disorder.

The seasonal relationship between assault and homicide in England and Wales

Investigating the seasonal asymmetry of violent behaviour has a long history. Despite this, there still remains considerable debate about the nature and aetiology of this phenomenon. Reports on homicide, for example, are mixed: some have found homicide seasonality but most have not. In contrast, all published studies on assault report that this behaviour is seasonal. Moreover, only two studies, both using US data, have examined the seasonal variation of assault and homicide in the same population over the same period of time. One group found assault was seasonal but homicide was not, whilst the other found, overall, that both homicide and assault were seasonal. This first of these findings seems paradoxical, in that there is no seasonal variation in injury related deaths (i.e. homicides), despite the antecedent behaviour (i.e. assaults) having a seasonal pattern of occurrence. We examined the seasonal variation in homicide and assault in UK and found a similar result. Furthermore, our findings are not easily understandable using conventional social models of seasonal behaviour and we suggest biologically mediated seasonal variation in the capacity of equally injured individuals to survive trauma may also play a role, which should be investigated further.