Home Language Maintenance Research Articles

“For my daughter is not the same, for sure”: learners’ and parents’ attitudes towards home language maintenance and development

ABSTRACT Heritage languages (HL) require special pedagogical resources, and from a sociolinguistic perspective, their status may vary, influencing learners’ and educators’ attitudes. In the case of Portuguese as an HL (PHL) in the German educational context, due to a limited institutionalised offer, non-formal settings prevail as a means of language development. In this ethnographic case study, we present the attitudes of parents and PHL learners in a socio-educational project that promotes bilingual education in Munich, Germany. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with parents, whereas with children, a focus group was set up using visual narratives. This study addressed two questions: How do parents’ and learners’ linguistic attitudes in this specific context differ? How do their beliefs concerning linguistic identity influence the home language maintenance? The results pointed to the convergent affective dimension of PHL. Concerning identity influence in home language maintenance, language attitudes result from different statuses assigned to PHL. While parents see PHL as a means of transmitting their ethnolinguistic identity, children's representations revealed different perceptions prevailing ‘home and family language’ status and a sense of fluid belonging, thus showing an emergent multilingual identity characterised by cultural hybridity.

Amplifying Parental Views about Language Choice When Raising Multilingual Children: Towards a Family-Centered Approach in Professional Contexts

Multilingualism has become the norm in families all over the world. These families need to juggle their children’s linguistic identity and integration in their contexts. They may also need professional advice about which language(s) they should use at home, especially when children present with developmental disorders. There is a dearth of studies addressing the role parental views play in home-language maintenance with children with developmental disorders. This study is conducted in Spain, where Spanish is the national language, along with local languages in certain regions, as well as foreign languages. This qualitative study aimed to deepen our understanding of the views about language choice of multilingual families whose children have either typical language development or a developmental disorder in Spain. We recruited 26 parents of multilingual children aged between 5 and 10 years, from different linguistic backgrounds. Semi-structured online interviews were conducted. The data were analyzed through reflexive thematic analysis. The findings illustrate the complexity and nuance of parents’ views and decisions regarding language choice in their contexts. The themes included identity and belonging, as well as the influences of external advice on parental decisions. It is important that professionals such as speech–language therapists understand these views to enable them to deliver family-centered care.

Unpacking children’s perspectives of multilingualism through language portraits: insights from a Polish pre-school in Australia

ABSTRACT This paper delves into the dynamics of language-based agency of six-year-old children raised in transnational families in Australia. The members of the focal group are four pre-schoolers, who while creating language portraits, offer insights into the truncated diversity of their linguistic repertoires. Through extent, position, choice of colour, use of symbols, and the accompanying written comments, the children communicate information about home language maintenance. Concomitant interviews unfold the overall picture of family language policies of the studied participants. Unsurprisingly, although the children’s opinions are shaped or even persuaded by their parents’ discourses, and considering the fact that parents do not normally discuss their family language policies with them, the young participants provide valuable and reliable perspectives on language management in their homes. Further, they exhibit agency in their family language policies, which are yet to be deliberated in terms of a multi-actor construct, whereby all family members have their own voices. That said, children exercise a freedom of language choice despite the conscious or unconscious linguistic efforts of their parents, which can be regarded as a manner of negotiating and impacting language use within the family.

Unpacking complex language ideologies toward heritage language maintenance: a case of Chinese migrant families in the US

ABSTRACT This study aims to explore how a group of Chinese American families transcend essentialist thinking through negotiating with different ideological orientations toward their heritage language and how these families’ different ideological profiles could influence the home language maintenance. Data were collected through three rounds of semi-structured interviews with six Chinese migrant families in Boston, U.S. Qualitative content analysis was carried out to analyze the complexity of parents’ ideologies. The findings revealed these migrant families’ capability of perceiving their heritage language as a problem, a right, and a resource to cope with real-life problems they encounter in the host country. Moreover, the possible coexistence and contradiction of multiple ideological orientations within each family may be associated with the intergenerational linguistic transmission. The study uncovers the underlying process of language preservation at the micro-level, elicits a more expansive understanding of language ideology as a complex assemblage, and substantiates Ruiz’s tripartite orientations as a practical heuristic for analyzing the interplay of differing beliefs. Crucially, whether to maintain one’s heritage language in migrant families is less of a nostalgia for their home country, but rather more of an ongoing process situated in their agentive attempts for meaning-making as members of their new multilingual society.

Parental perceptions of bilingualism and home language vocabulary: Young bilingual children from low-income immigrant Mexican American and Chinese American families.

Dual language learners (DLLs), especially those from immigrant families in the United States, risk losing their home language as they gradually shift to speaking English as they grow up. Given the potential benefits of bilingualism on children's cognitive, linguistic, and social-emotional development, it is crucial to maintain children's home language to foster bilingual development. The current literature suggests that parental beliefs toward bilingualism and the language and literacy environment are linked to children's language development. With the growing number of DLLs living in the United States, little is known about what parental beliefs about bilingualism of their children are integrated into these bilingual households and parents' role in home language maintenance. The present study addresses the gap in the literature by investigating low-income immigrant families, specifically Chinese American and Mexican American families, and exploring the parental perceptions of children's bilingual language learning. Further, the present study examines the relations among parental perceptions of bilingualism, home language and literacy practices, and home language oral proficiency. Data were collected from a total of 41 Mexican American and 91 Chinese American low-income immigrant families with DLLs ages 50-88 months who had been recruited from Head Start programs and state-funded preschools in Northern California when the children were 3-4 years old. Information about shared reading frequency, home language exposure and usage, and parental perceptions of bilingualism was collected through parental interviews, and DLLs' home language oral proficiency was individually assessed. No significant difference in home language oral proficiency was observed between the two groups. Principal Components Analysis on the parental perceptions of bilingualism measure revealed two components, "Importance of Being Bilingual" and "English over Bilingualism." Stepwise regression analysis results show that "Importance of Being Bilingual" was associated with children's home language oral proficiency after controlling for culture, child age, the frequency of home language shared book reading, and child home language exposure and use. The results show that parents' positive beliefs toward bilingualism are related to the children's use of that language and their children's language outcomes. Implications and suggestions for home language and literacy support for DLLs are discussed.

Consistent and Persistent: Successful Home Language Maintenance among Vietnamese-Australian Families

Informed by Spolsky’s language policy theory, this study explores Vietnamese-Australian families’ experience of successful home language maintenance in three aspects: language practices, language ideologies, and language management. Seven parents from five families whose children achieved high bilingual proficiency scores in the speech and language assessment of the VietSpeech research program were invited to participate in a focus group to discuss successful strategies for home language maintenance. The discussion was undertaken in Vietnamese. Thematic analysis of the bilingual transcription revealed four themes: motivations, challenges, practices, and recommendations for home language maintenance support. The parents’ motivations for home language maintenance included communication with grandparents and relatives, maintenance of cultural identity, parents’ need to speak their home language, and cognitive and emotional benefits. Challenges faced by the families were related to children starting school and growing older, parents’ lack of time and persistence, and insufficient support in terms of formal Vietnamese education, resources, and teacher quality. The families’ strategies for successful language maintenance included speaking Vietnamese all the time as well as teaching Vietnamese directly using textbooks and indirectly through regular activities including book reading, daily interactions, and watching Vietnamese TV. The parents’ recommendations focused on changes in language education policy and advocacy, better resources, and raising awareness of the benefits of home language maintenance. This study provides insights into the successful experience of home language maintenance of Vietnamese-Australian families and can be used by multilingual families, educators, policy makers, speech-language pathologists, and other professionals to support home language maintenance.

SuperSpeech: Multilingual Speech and Language Maintenance Intervention for Vietnamese-Australian Children and Families via Telepractice.

The aim of this pilot feasibility study was to evaluate the effectiveness of the group VietSpeech SuperSpeech program targeting speech skills and home language maintenance via telepractice. In Stage 1, using a case-control design, 30 Vietnamese-English-speaking children were assessed in English and Vietnamese, and parents completed questionnaires about speech and language competency and practices. During Stage 2, children were allocated to intervention (n = 14) or control (n = 16) conditions. COVID-19 restrictions resulted in changes including nonrandom allocation. Online group intervention targeting speech, home language maintenance, and multilingualism as a superpower was delivered 1 hr/week for 8 weeks. For Stage 3, assessments were undertaken approximately 10 weeks after the pre-intervention assessment. Parents in the intervention group significantly increased encouragement of their children to speak Vietnamese. The intervention group significantly increased intelligibility in English. Growth of Vietnamese vocabulary was faster for the control group. There was a moderate effect of intervention for children's perception of being happy talking in Vietnamese and English. There was no significant mean change from pre- to post-intervention compared with the control group for measures of speech sound accuracy in Vietnamese or English, Vietnamese intelligibility, English vocabulary, or hours of Vietnamese spoken each week. This study presents preliminary evidence that this 8-hr online group program targeting speech skills and home language maintenance had some impact on Vietnamese-Australian children's speech and home language maintenance. Further research involving a randomized trial is warranted.

Home language maintenance in bilingual children with normal hearing and with hearing loss who use cochlear implants

ABSTRACT We investigated home language (Spanish) maintenance in Spanish- and English-speaking bilingual children with normal hearing (NH) and their peers with hearing loss (HL) who used cochlear implants (CIs) at two time points about 7 months apart. Twenty-two bilingual children (11 with NH and 11 with CIs) between the ages of 4;6 and 7;11 participated in the study, who were matched as closely as possible on chronological age, time elapsed between the first and the second sample, gender, and age of exposure to their languages across groups. We compared group performance on the Preschool Language Scales – 5th edition (PLS-5) and the Word Intelligibility Picture Identification at each time point as well as home language maintenance calculated based on item responses on the PLS-5. Our results indicated differences on all measures at both time points between the performance of children with NH and their peers with HL who used CIs in that the former group outperformed the latter. We also found that bilingual children with NH maintained their home language at a higher level than their peers with HL who used CIs. Further, the data also showed that despite the group differences, both groups displayed maintenance of their home language and that individual variability was more prevalent in the CI group. We conclude that home language maintenance is not only possible, but it should be encouraged for both bilingual children with NH and their peers with HL who used CIs.

What prompts early childhood professionals to proffer advice to multilingual families? Investigating the association between language policy and perceived self-efficacy

ABSTRACT Early childhood professionals can act as catalysts in encouraging home language maintenance in multilingual families. However, there is a dearth of research on whether these professionals advise parents to speak their home language(s) to their offspring, and furthermore, little is known about what prompts professionals to proffer language advice. To respond to these queries, we relied on two theoretical frameworks: Spolsky’s language policy model and Bandura’s perceived self-efficacy theory. We gathered data from professionals (N = 305) employed at infant welfare clinics in Belgium and examined whether a high sense of multilingual confidence (i.e. a form of perceived self-efficacy), together with positive multilingual beliefs and multilingual practices, would induce professionals to offer multilingual advice (i.e. a form of language management). Our logistic regression results revealed that multilingual practices and multilingual confidence were positively associated with multilingual advice. Additionally, multilingual training was found to be strongly related to advice-giving. Multilingual beliefs, however, were only connected with multilingual advice when they were considered without the inclusion of multilingual confidence, as multilingual beliefs seemed to operate via multilingual confidence. We, therefore, suggest an enrichment of Spolsky’s model by taking into account multilingual confidence when investigating individuals’ language policy dynamics.

Using a ‘Family Language Policy’ lens to explore the dynamic and relational nature of child agency

AbstractThis article contributes to a dialogue between childhood studies and the sociolinguistic subfield ‘Family Language Policy’ (‘FLP’). The article argues that the two fields provide complementary vantage points for exploring child agency. It explains a revised version of a model I developed to conceptualise child agency in FLP, consisting of four intersecting dimensions: compliance regimes; linguistic norms; linguistic competence and generational positioning (Smith‐Christmas,Handbook of home language maintenance and development. De Gruyter Mouton, pp. 218–235, 2020a). The article examines two conversational excerpts as a means to illustrating the dynamic and relational nature of child agency and how it is bothshaped byas well asshapesinteractional practices over time and space.

Andrea C. Schalley and Susana A. Eisenchlas (eds.): Handbook of Home Language Maintenance and Development: Social and Affective Factors

Article Andrea C. Schalley and Susana A. Eisenchlas (eds.): Handbook of Home Language Maintenance and Development: Social and Affective Factors was published on May 1, 2021 in the journal International Journal of the Sociology of Language (volume 2021, issue 269).

Monolingual ideologies of Andalusian teachers in the multilingual schools’ context

ABSTRACT This article examines Andalusian teachers’ ideologies towards migrant students’ bilingualism and, the way teachers perceive the home language maintenance and its use in the school context. The data was collected through semi-structured interviews to two types of teachers –specialist language and regular teachers– in Andalusia (Spain). Findings revealed that were slight differences in the ideologies of these two types of teachers. In general, teachers’ beliefs towards bilingualism were relatively positive. In rhetoric, language teachers demonstrated a greater appreciation for the bilingualism of the students and viewed it as a challenge. Conversely, the regular teachers had a less positive orientation towards bilingualism, associating it with problems. Furthermore, teachers advocate assimilationist language ideologies that consider – Spanish-only– as an indispensable tool for academic achievement. Our results also highlight that participants did not seem to be aware of the importance of students’ home language-as-a right and its use as a democratic condition in a multilingual society such as Spain. The results show a need for professional development for all teachers to move away from monolingualism to advocating for multilingualism to better reflect the realities of the classrooms.

Locating Spaces for San Mother-Tongue Education in the South African Education Framework

ABSTRACT Twenty five years after the advent of democracy in South Africa, indigenous language education for San communities in South Africa is a goal that still needs to be realised. There have been various attempts, though none of these have resulted in sustained programmes or projects. In particular, attempts to implement the recommendations of a report on Khoe and San language education in schools submitted to the Northern Cape Education Department (NCED) in 2001 are reviewed. Two types of language programmes are relevant, namely language revival programmes to reintroduce languages no longer spoken by communities, and mother tongue education (MTE) programmes to ensure home language maintenance. This paper will focus on the latter, namely the possibility of providing some form of MTE within the context of the two San speech communities of Platfontein township located outside Kimberley. Different scenarios are provided taking into account the South African policy environment.

Vietnamese-Australian parents: factors associated with language use and attitudes towards home language maintenance

ABSTRACT The aim of this study is to identify factors associated with Vietnamese-Australian parents’ language use and attitudes towards home language maintenance. Vietnamese-Australian parents (n = 151) with children aged under 18 completed a survey regarding demographic factors and factors conceptualised by Spolsky’s language policy theory: language practices, language ideologies, and language management. Bivariate analyses and multiple regression models were conducted to explore associations between parents’ language use and their attitudes towards home language maintenance and associated factors. Parents’ language use with their child was significantly associated with their language practices (parents’ language use in social situations). Parents’ language use in social situations was significantly associated with language practices (parents’ Vietnamese and English proficiency, parents’ language use with their child), language management (frequency of attendance at community events), and one demographic factor (age). Parents’ attitudes towards home language maintenance was significantly associated with language ideology factors (perceptions of cultural identity, belief in the importance of English language maintenance, belief that home language strengthens relative bonds and widens career options), and one demographic factor (income). The results can be used to assist families with Vietnamese heritage to maintain their home language by informing targeted approaches to supporting language maintenance at the community and family level.

Dual language supports for dual language learners? Exploring preschool classroom instructional supports for DLLs' early learning outcomes

Dual language learners (DLLs) - children who are learning and developing two languages - are among the fastest growing groups of young children in the United States and currently compose a third of the public preschool population. Although evidence suggests that preschool education is beneficial for DLLs, little is known about which instructional supports in the preschool classroom best promote DLLs’ early learning skills. Drawing on a newly-collected sample of Spanish-speaking DLLs in an English-dominant, mixed-delivery public preschool system for children in low-income families (Head Start; school-based pre-k), this paper focuses on two instructional dimensions of the preschool classroom expected to support DLLs’ learning: supports for home language and supports for English acquisition. We test for associations between these classroom supports and DLLs’ English language skills, quantitative reasoning skills assessed in English, and home language skills at the end of the preschool year, and whether any such associations are moderated by the proportion of DLLs in the classroom. Controlling for baseline skills, results indicate positive associations between classroom supports for home language and quantitative reasoning skills and Spanish expressive vocabulary skills at the end of preschool. Associations varied by proportion of DLLs in the classroom. Supports for English acquisition did not predict any outcomes. This study adds to an emerging body of research suggesting classroom instructional supports for DLLs’ home language may be important not just for the maintenance of children's home language, but also for the acquisition of foundational pre-math skills. Additionally, findings suggest support for home language is possible even in preschool classrooms where the teacher does not speak the home language. The DLL composition of the classroom also warrants attention as a moderator of these associations.

Heritage language policies of the Iranian diaspora in New Zealand

ABSTRACT The present study investigates immigrant parents’ family language policies in regards to their children’s heritage language development and maintenance by utilizing Spolsky’s theoretical model on which research on family language policy (FLP) considerably draw. Following the three core components of the FLP model, Iranian parents’ beliefs, practices and efforts in relation to their children’s home language (i.e. Persian/Farsi) acquisition and maintenance are investigated. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews with twenty-five parents of Persian-English bilinguals (6–18 year old) in New Zealand. The findings reveal that although the parents hold positive beliefs towards the family language acquisition and maintenance, there are discrepancies between their language ideologies and family language practices. In light of these inconsistencies between parents’ beliefs and their actual family language practices and efforts to preserve the heritage language, we argue that to raise their children bilingually, immigrant parents should not only have strong beliefs towards family language acquisition and maintenance, but also their everyday practices and efforts should be in line with their beliefs.

When ‘home languages’ become ‘holiday languages’: teachers’ discourses about responsibility for maintaining languages beyond English

ABSTRACT Despite research evidence showing that home language maintenance is important both individually and societally, the task of managing and encouraging it has traditionally fallen to minority language communities and families, tending to lead to inter-generational language shift. Teachers’ discourses about responsibilities for language maintenance, attrition and shift have not been researched adequately. This paper addresses this gap by offering a critical discourse analysis of research interviews with British primary school educators. Research on this topic is important because it is well known that teachers’ attitudes impact on local policies and classroom practices. Findings show that teachers construct parents and children as responsible for maintenance and attrition of languages beyond English. Teachers hold varying attitudes on language maintenance, some perceiving it as important, whilst others do not. However, few participants claim any significant sense of personal or institutional responsibility for home language maintenance. Parents are construed as denying their children the chance to develop their home languages and children are negatively appraised for not taking opportunities to use them. Globally, teachers need to be empowered to challenge societal ideologies embedded in language policies and the education system should take a role in home language development to help prevent language shift.

A child’s trilingual language practices in Korean, Farsi, and English: from a sustainable translanguaging perspective

ABSTRACTIncreased international marriages and transnational mobility have prompted more children to grow up learning more than two languages simultaneously. However, despite well-known benefits of multilingualism, helping a growing number of trilingual children to reach their full potential has been challenging in the US, as prevalent monolingual policies and biases inhibit home language maintenance and development. The current study aims to describe rich language practices of a trilingual child from birth to age six in communicating meaning across three home languages: Korean, Farsi, and English. This ethnographic study utilised the translanguaging as well as sustainable translanguaging frameworks. The findings show that the trilingual child engaged over time in complex, nuanced, and sophisticated language practices, namely translation and codeswitching, that are unique to trilingual practices. He did so to accomplish different communicative functions by meeting and contradicting needs and practices of his audiences. The study also discusses unique contributions to translanguaging research as well as important implications for home language development for immigrant parents and teachers who work with multilingual learners in schools.

Sociocultural Adaptation for Asian Immigrant English Language Learners

This phenomenological study discusses sociocultural adaptation, as one of the findings emerged from the study, among Asian immigrant English language learners (ELLs) and their parents, as well as New Zealand early childhood teachers. The focus of the study is on the analysis of early childhood teachers’ beliefs about how they can support English acquisition among Asian immigrant ELLs and how these beliefs influence the teachers’ practices in early childhood education (ECE) settings as they adapt themselves.The theoretical framework of this research draws on a range of sociocultural perspectives, including (i) the sociocultural positions initially defined by Lev (1978); (ii) the notion of guided participation articulated by Barbara (2003) (iii) theories of second language acquisition discussed by Lantolf and Thorne (2000); and by Krashen (1982); Krashen (1985) and (iv) acculturation as addressed by Berry (2001). The main participants of this study were seven early childhood teachers and six Asian immigrant ELLs from two ECE centres. Four Asian parents participated in interviews to ascertain the parents’ perspectives about their children’s learning of English and their maintenance of home language. Research methods for the teachers included observations and semi-structured pre- and post-observation interviews. For each centre, observations were carried out over a six week period which enabled a series of snapshots of how the teachers supported the ELLs as they acquired English. The findings were analysed using thematic analysis. The findings revealed that there were dissonances between the teachers’ beliefs and their practices, as well as variation between individual teachers’ beliefs and practices. This study will provide a basis from which to consider how early childhood teachers in New Zealand can draw upon sociocultural perspectives to better support ELLs as they acquire English, while valuing and supporting their linguistic and cultural backgrounds.

“No peeing on the sidewalk!”: Family literacy programs in culturally, linguistically, and socially diverse communities

The purpose of this article is to reflect on three decades of working in family literacy initiatives in diverse communities. We review the literature on children’s emergent early literacy development and family literacy and describe the conceptual framework, including socio-cultural theory, cultural models of learning and ethnotheories, culturally responsive pedagogy, and bilingualism and first or home language maintenance. We also describe the development and evolution of the various projects and their contexts after which we share some of the key things we learned from working with families and communities, including challenges. In conclusion, we highlight key insights garnered from this body of work for various stakeholders including teachers.