Hollow Hexagonal Prisms Research Articles

Indium oxide-based Z-scheme hollow core–shell heterostructure with rich sulfur-vacancy for highly efficient light-driven splitting of water to produce clean energy

Crafting an inorganic semiconductor heterojunction with defect engineering and morphology modulation is a strategic approach to produce clean energy by the highly efficient light-driven splitting of water. In this paper, a novel Z-scheme sulfur-vacancy containing Zn3In2S6 (Vs-Zn3In2S6) nanosheets/In2O3 hollow hexagonal prisms heterostructrue (Vs-ZIS6INO) was firstly constructed by an oil bath method, in which Vs-Zn3In2S6 nanosheets grew on the surfaces of In2O3 hollow hexagonal prisms to form a hollow core–shell structure. The obtained Vs-ZIS6INO heterostructrue exhibited much enhanced activity of the production of H2 and H2O2 by the light-driven water splitting. In particular, under visible light irradiation (λ > 420 nm), the rate of generation of H2 of Vs-ZIS6INO sample containing 30 wt% Vs-Zn3In2S6 (30Vs-ZIS6INO) could reach 3721 μmol g–1h−1, which was 87 and 6 times higher than those of Zn3In2S6 (43 μmol g–1h−1) and Vs-Zn3In2S6 (586 μmol g–1h−1), respectively. Meanwhile, 30Vs-ZIS6INO could exhibit the rate of H2O2 production of 483 μmol g–1h−1 through the dual pathways of indirect 2e– oxygen reduction (ORR) and water oxidation (WOR) without adding any sacrifice agents, far exceeding In2O3 (7 μmol g–1h−1) and Vs-Zn3In2S6 (58 μmol g–1h−1). The excellent photocatalytic activities of H2 and H2O2 generations of Vs-ZIS6INO sample might result from the synergistic effect of the sulfur vacancy, hollow core–shell structure, and Z-scheme heterostructure, which accelerated the electron delocalization, enhanced the absorption and conversion of solar energy, reduced the carrier diffusion distance, and ensured high REDOX ability. In addition, the possible photocatalytic mechanisms for the production of H2 and H2O2 were discussed in detail. This study provided a new idea and reference for constructing the novel and efficient inorganic semiconductor heterostructures by coordinating vacancy defect and morphology design to adequately utilize water splitting for the production of clean energy.

Interfacial oxygen vacancy engineering and built-in electric field mediated Z-scheme In2O3/Ag3PO4 heterojunction for boosted photocatalytic doxycycline degradation

Doxycycline pollutants in environment seriously destroy the balance of ecological system. A Z-scheme In2O3/Ag3PO4 heterojunction is constructed by attaching Ag3PO4 nanoparticles on hollow In2O3 hexagonal prism structures for efficient degradation of doxycycline. The doxycycline (30 mg/L) removal rate by IAO-1 (mole ratio of In2O3:Ag3PO4 is 1:3, 1.0 g/L) reaches 99.7% under visible light irradiation. Degradation rates are almost unchanged after five cycles of degradation experiments, demonstrating the excellent reusability and stability of the IAO-1 photocatalyst. The photocatalytic degradation of doxycycline in different water matrices by IAO-1 shows excellent performance, which provides significant potential for practical applications. The experiments and DFT results demonstrate that the built-in electric fields in IAO-1 contribute to the charge transfer from Ag3PO4 to In2O3, leading to the formation of a Z-scheme heterojunction with high redox capacity. The hollow defect structure of IAO-1 effectively activates molecular oxygen to generate oxygen vacancies and induce 1O2 production through energy transfer, which promotes the attack of benzene rings and oxygen-containing groups in the molecular structure of doxycycline, leading to hydroxylation, demethylation, and ring-opening reactions. This work provides new ideas for constructing Z-scheme photocatalysts with oxygen vacancies and built-in electric fields for practical wastewater treatment.

MOF-derived CdS@c/h-In2O3 hollow hexagonal prism with surface-grown nanofibers for ppb-level formaldehyde detection: an insight into synergistic enhancement of endogenous phase-homojunction and heterojunction

Detection of ppb-level formaldehyde at low temperatures is a great pursuit for metal oxide semiconductor sensors. To realize this goal, metal organic framework (MOF) derived hollow hexagonal prism with surface-grown nanofibers were successfully prepared and modified using quantum dots, affording a 3D/0D heterojunction with excellent sensing performance. The CdS@c/h-In2O3-2 hollow hexagonal prism exhibits outstanding sensing properties (107.37 for 100 ppm), ideal selectivity, and low detection limit (160 ppb) at 160 °C. Moreover, the possible formation mechanism of the hollow hexagonal prism and endogenous phase-homojunction are proposed. Further, an insight into the synergistic enhancement of endogenous phase-homojunction and heterojunction is presented, including the gas diffusion, density functional theory (DFT) calculations, and resistance-controlled mechanism. The distinguished HCHO-sensing performance can be attributed to MOF-derived endogenous phase-homojunction, 3D/0D heterostructure, hollow morphology, and confined internal space, which ultimately synergize to strengthen the adsorption and electron transfer behavior of oxygen and HCHO molecules. Overall, this work provides new insights into the feasible strategy and theoretical viewpoint concerning high-performance HCHO sensors.

WS2 quantum dots modified In2O3 hollow hexagonal prisms for conductometric NO2 sensing at room-temperature

The fabrication and investigations of a novel NO2 gas sensor based on a 1T and 2H mixed phase WS2 quantum dots (QDs) modified MOF-derived hollow In2O3 (WS2 QDs@In2O3) heterostructure were documented. The proposed gas sensor based on WS2 QDs@In2O3 hollow hexagonal prisms was simple, sensitive, cost-effective and worked at room temperature (25 ± 2 °C). The response value of 3 wt% WS2 QDs@In2O3 (W3In) towards 100 ppm NO2 could reach to 2034, which was an ultra-high value and almost 7.7 times higher than that of pure In2O3. Besides, our sensor showed excellent selectivity to NO2 and could detect concentration down to 100 ppb. The enhanced NO2 sensing performance was observed due to the synergistic effect between WS2 and In2O3. Furthermore, the compensation response values to NO2 based on the response to water vapor under different humidity of W3In were calculated and their fluctuations are within 7.8 % compared with the response under 25 % RH, which could provide a new strategy for accurately detecting NO2.

Quad-band microwave absorbers based on MoO3-x@MWCNT with tunable morphologies for multifunctional multiband absorption

Microwave absorption materials can effectively eliminate harmful electromagnetic radiation to protect humanity, but it still remains challenging to attain absorbers with quad-band compatible strong absorption to date. Herein, MoO3-x@MWCNT with tunable morphologies was fabricated via a facile one-step hydrothermal route and their microwave absorption properties in different frequency bands were systematically investigated, along with the multifunctional properties. The absorbers with a hollow hexagonal prism and cauliflower-like morphologies can be tailored by changing the hybrid ratios of MoO3-x rich in vacancy defects and defective MWCNT from 5:1 (S1), 6:1 (S2) to 7:1 (S3), contributing to quad-band absorption (S-, C-, X- and Ku-bands) with maximum effective absorption bandwidth of 3.68 GHz for S2 and tri-band absorption (S-, X- and Ku-bands) with maximum effective absorption bandwidth of 4.67 GHz for S3, and optimal reflection loss can reach −62.23 dB when a compound ratio of 30% is satisfied in S3/paraffin. The conspicuous quad-band absorption and reflection loss are manipulated by the synergetic effects of multiple factors including porous structures, numerous defects and heterogeneous interfaces, etc. Additionally, remarkable fire-retardancy, photothermal de-icing and antibacterial performance of synthesized MoO3-x@MWCNT-based absorbing coating are expected to deliver solutions for complex communication and detection in the military and civil fields.

In Vitro and In Vivo Analysis of the Effects of 3D-Printed Porous Titanium Alloy Scaffold Structure on Osteogenic Activity.

The effect of titanium scaffold geometry on the bone regeneration ability of the scaffold remains unclear. Here, selective laser melting as a 3D printing technology was used to create porous titanium alloy scaffolds with two unit structures: a hollow hexagonal prism (group A) and a hollow triangular prism (group B). The structures and morphologies of the scaffolds were characterized before mechanical properties were simulated. Cell adhesion behaviors, osteoblast activity and proliferation, and alkaline phosphatase (ALP) activity were evaluated, in addition to in vivo testing in an animal model. The results showed that the two scaffolds made of Ti6Al4V had compression moduli similar to that of human cortical bone (116.91 ± 0.01 and 174.29 ± 2.21 MPa vs. 89–164 MPa). The two scaffolds were nontoxic to cells and had good biocompatibility, while group A scaffolds facilitated cell adhesion. The number of cells increased gradually in culture. The ALP activity of cells on group A scaffolds demonstrated higher osteogenic ability than that of group B scaffolds. The in vivo tests showed that all scaffolds retained their shape well after implantation, and no obvious inflammatory reaction or infection in surrounding tissues was found. Based on fluorescence staining, mature new bone formation was found at week 12. Group A scaffolds showed better bone integration ability compared with group B scaffolds. The percentage of new bone area in group A (7.5%) was higher than that in group B (6.5%). This research suggests that the hollow hexagonal prism structure of porous scaffolds can promote osteogenic differentiation and osseointegration better than the triangular prism structure.

Quantum Linear Magnetoresistance and Nontrivial Berry Phase in High‐Mobility Elemental Tellurium

AbstractElemental Tellurium (Te) is an important p‐type semiconductor with wide practical applications. It is currently of great interest as a chiral crystal with broken inversion and mirror symmetries, and its topological nature is under active discussion. Here the Shubnikov–de Haas (SdH) oscillations with a nontrivial π Berry phase and the quantum linear magnetoresistance (MR) in as‐synthesized high‐mobility Te single crystals are reported. The vapor transport grown Te shows a hollow hexagonal prism structure with tunable carrier density and high mobility of about 1000 cm2 V−1 s−1 at low temperature. For concentration p > 1017 cm−3, the conspicuous SdH oscillations map out the dumbbell‐shaped Fermi surface and the long‐standing peculiar amplitude change with varying magnetic field orientation is explained by careful quantitative analyses. Pulsed magnetic field measurements up to 57 T disclose a quantum linear MR beyond the quantum limit and the Landau fan diagram clearly reveals a topologically nontrivial π Berry phase. This work paves way for the synthesis of high‐mobility Te structures and sheds light onto the intrinsic nontrivial topology of the attractive elemental substance.

Spatially separated catalytic sites supplied with the CdS–MoS2–In2O3 ternary dumbbell S-scheme heterojunction for enhanced photocatalytic hydrogen production

In2O3 hollow hexagonal prisms are combined with CdS–MoS2 dumbbell electrostatic self-assembly to weaken the surface oxidation kinetics. MoS2 promotes the CdS–In2O3 S-scheme heterojunction photocatalyst to show significant photocatalytic performance.

Giant enhanced photocatalytic H2O2 production over hollow hexagonal prisms carbon nitride

BackgroundH2O2, as a green and environmentally friendly oxidant, has been widely used in our daily life and industrial production. It is of epoch-making significance to develop highly efficient photocatalysts for producing H2O2. In recent years, g-C3N4 has received much attention due to its high chemical stability, environmental friendliness and suitable energy band structure. However, some shortcomings including the fast recombination of photogenerated electron-hole pairs and small specific surface area in traditional 2D g-C3N4 seriously impede its photocatalytic performance for the production of H2O2. Methods1D hollow nanostructures possess intriguing physicochemical properties and are adopted to overcome the intrinsic shortcomings of g-C3N4. Herein, g-C3N4 with a hollow hexagonal prism structure (CNHP) is prepared to produce H2O2. It is characterized by XRD, XPS, SEM, HRTEM, ESR and DRS. BET, PL spectra, photocurrent and EIS are used to explain the enhanced photocatalytic performance. Significant findingsCompared with traditional 2D g-C3N4, the specific surface area of CNHP increases to 41.513 m2/g, providing more active sites. Meanwhile, its hollow tubular structure can enhance the migration of photogenerated electrons to the catalyst surface, and electrons with a longer lifetime can participate in photocatalytic reactions to achieve high efficiency. The yield of H2O2 production can up to 4.08 μmol over CNHP in 40 min, which is about 7 times higher than that of traditional 2D g-C3N4, and the apparent quantum efficiency (AQE) of H2O2 production at 420 nm is 2.41%. This research provides a valuable reference for the development of green materials for efficient photocatalytic production of H2O2.

Gram-scale batch production of novel CdS hollow hexagonal prisms by a molten salt method and the improved photocatalytic stability

It remains a significant challenge to obtain CdS photocatalysts with high stability on a large scale. In this work, CdS are prepared using a simple KSCN molten salt method (CdS-MS) and conventional hydrothermal method (CdS-HT), respectively. CdS-MS consists of novel hollow hexagonal prisms, which is not reported so far. Under visible light irradiation (λ > 400 nm), CdS-MS shows a higher photocatalytic activity for the degradation of phenol, norfloxacin and RhB, which are 2.27, 2.11 and 1.05 times higher than CdS-HT. The higher photocatalytic activity of CdS-MS is mainly attributed to the novel hollow hexagonal prism microstructure and more sulfur defects, leading to the greater oxidation potential and higher charge separation efficiency. Furthermore, CdS-MS shows outstanding cycle stability. After four cycles, 90.6% of the degradation efficiency is retained for CdS-MS, while only 68.3% of the degradation efficiency is retained for CdS-HT. The higher stability of CdS-MS is mainly attributed to its unique morphology and surface valence of sulfur, which make it more difficult to agglomerate and occur photocorrosion, respectively. The reported method is simple and high-yielding, which is easy to extend to mass production.

Sulfur doped In2O3-CeO2 hollow hexagonal prisms with carbon coating for efficient photocatalytic CO2 reduction

Developing integrated photocatalysts with advanced structures and desired components is an effective strategy for promoting solar-to-chemical energy conversion. Herein, a novel sulfur-doped In2O3-CeO2 hollow hexagonal prism with a thin carbon coating (S-C/In2O3-CeO2 HHP) is synthesized by directly pyrolyzing Ce-doped In-Materials of Institute Lavoisier-68 (In-MIL-68) hexagonal prism metal–organic frameworks under N2 atmosphere in the presence of sulfur powder, showing excellent photocatalytic carbon dioxide (CO2) reduction efficiency. This synthetic strategy realizes the regulation of structure, components, and surface defects of the final products. The synergistic effects of hollow porous hexagonal prism structure, In2O3-CeO2 heterojunction, and surface defects exhibit advantageous features for CO2 photoreactions with accelerated transfer and separation of charge carriers, enhanced visible-light utilization and CO2 chemisorption ability, and enlarged catalytic active sites. Benefiting from these advantages, the obtained optimized S-C/In2O3-CeO2 HHP exhibits superior gas phase photocatalytic performance for the conversion of CO2 into CH4 and CO, yielding a CH4 yield of 60.6 μmol g−1h−1 and a selectivity of 92.4% under AM1.5 irradiation without noble metal and organic photosensitizer. This work presents a strategy for the rational design and fabrication of efficient photocatalysts with advanced hollow architectures.

Thermodynamics and kinetics of REEs in CaO–SiO2–CaF2–Ce2O3 system: A theoretical basis toward sustainable utilization of REEs in REE-Bearing slag

Sustainable utilization of rare earth elements (REEs) in REE-bearing slag has recently attracted significant interest in industries and research community. However, few thermodynamic and kinetic data have been reported for REEs systems, which greatly limits the sustainable utilization of REE-bearing slag in ceramics and other fields. Therefore, the isothermal phase diagram of CaO–SiO2–CaF2–Ce2O3 system was constructed, and the phase equlibria data of REEs in REE-bearing slag were provided in this study. On this basis, the phase equilibria of the RE-phase in CaO–SiO2–CaF2–Ce2O3 system was investigated, the exact initial crystallization temperature of cefluosil (Ce9.33-xCax(SiO4)4O5-0.5xF2) in the system was 1450 K and the cefluosil crystals were in a hollow hexagonal prism shape. The isothermal crystallization and growth kinetics of cefluosil were further studied. The crystallization kinetics of cefluosil were found to be described by the Johnson-Mehl-Avrami-Kolmogoro (JMAK) equation (when χ < 1), and the growth of cefluosil in the non-equilibrium stage is controlled by the coarsening energy. In this research, the thermodynamic and kinetic data of REEs in CaO–SiO2–CaF2–Ce2O3 system are supplied, which providing the theoretical basis for sustainable utilization of REEs in REE-bearing slag.

High specific surface area SnO2 prepared by calcining Sn-MOFs and their formaldehyde-sensing characteristics

In this study, micron-sized hollow hexagonal prisms of SnO2 have been successfully synthesized based on a metal-organic framework material, Sn-MOF. The structure, morphology and gas sensing performance of prepared products were investigated by XRD, SEM, BET, XPS, TEM, Raman, FTIR and gas-sensing measurements. The experimental results show that metal oxides with high specific surface area can be obtained by calcining metal-organic framework materials. Specifically, a sensor based on hollow hexagonal prisms of SnO2 exhibited high response value (882) and short response time (19 s) to 2 ppm formaldehyde vapor at an optimal temperature of 120 ℃. This could be due to its larger specific surface area (46.42 m2/g).

An approaching-theoretical-capacity anode material for aqueous battery: Hollow hexagonal prism Bi2O3 assembled by nanoparticles

At present, various strategies are utilized to improve the specific capacity of electrode materials to overcome the low energy density problem of aqueous battery, while their specific capacity is still far away from the theoretical value, especially for anode materials. Herein, we designed and synthesized nanoparticles assembled hollow hexagonal prism Bi2O3 (HHP Bi2O3) through template inducing synthesis. When used as an anode material for aqueous battery, it demonstrated a remarkable specific capacity of 327 mAh/g at 1 A/g, which reaches 94.8% of its theoretical capacity and is the highest value of its kind. Besides the high specific capacity, the as-fabricated HHP Bi2O3 also exhibits superior rate capability (220 mAh/g at 20 A/g) and long-term stability (~80%, 3000 cycles). Such high performance originates from high atom utilization and fast reaction kinetics for electrochemical reaction brought by its unique structures. Notably, when the HHP Bi2O3 is paired with the cathode material NixCo1-x (OH)2 to form an aqueous alkaline battery, its high electrochemical property is well exhibited. The designed HHP Bi2O3 with scalable synthesis process provides guidance for the preparation of other high capacity energy-storage materials, and paves the way to promote their practicality.

Deployable, Variable Stiffness, Cable Driven Robot for Minimally Invasive Surgery.

Minimally Invasive Surgery (MIS) imposes a trade-off between non-invasive access and surgical capability. Treatment of early gastric cancers over 20 mm in diameter can be achieved by performing Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection (ESD) with a flexible endoscope; however, this procedure is technically challenging, suffers from extended operation times and requires extensive training. To facilitate the ESD procedure, we have created a deployable cable driven robot that increases the surgical capabilities of the flexible endoscope while attempting to minimize the impact on the access that they offer. Using a low-profile inflatable support structure in the shape of a hollow hexagonal prism, our robot can fold around the flexible endoscope and, when the target site has been reached, achieve a 73.16% increase in volume and increase its radial stiffness. A sheath around the variable stiffness structure delivers a series of force transmission cables that connect to two independent tubular end-effectors through which standard flexible endoscopic instruments can pass and be anchored. Using a simple control scheme based on the length of each cable, the pose of the two instruments can be controlled by haptic controllers in each hand of the user. The forces exerted by a single instrument were measured, and a maximum magnitude of 8.29 N observed along a single axis. The working channels and tip control of the flexible endoscope remain in use in conjunction with our robot and were used during a procedure imitating the demands of ESD was successfully carried out by a novice user. Not only does this robot facilitate difficult surgical techniques, but it can be easily customized and rapidly produced at low cost due to a programmatic design approach.

Mechanical performance of an improved semi-rigid joint system under bending and axial forces for aluminum single-layer reticulated shells

In this study, the traditional Temcor joint (TR-Temcor) is modified using a central hollow hexagonal prism and some front bolts. The Finite Element Analysis (FEA) model is established and verified by experiments. Then, a parametric analysis is carried out for the improved Temcor joint (IM-Temcor). To obtain the optimal parameters for the modified joint, the key factors, namely: number and location of the front bolts, bolt-hole deviation, pretension force in bolts, thickness of front plate and heat-affected zone caused by the welding work, are considered in the FEA models. The modified joint, with the optimized factors, is analyzed for different static load conditions, considering axial pressure, axial tension, pure bending, bending with axial force, and eccentric axial forces. The overall mechanical behavior of the joint, including the M-Φ curves, initial stiffness, ultimate strength and deformation capacity, as well as the failure modes are identified. The results from the improved joint are compared with corresponding values from of the traditional Temcor joints. The results show that the central hollow hexagonal prism and front bolts significantly improves the stiffness and ultimate strength of the joint, especially when the joint is subjected to pure bending, bending with shear force, axial force, bending with certain axial force and eccentric force.

Morphology Evolution of Mn5Si3 Phase and Effect of Mn content on Wear Resistance of Special Brass

There is a surge of interests in developing newer materials with special properties and many areas are being explored by several groups. We wish to report our findings on the effect of Mn content on the microstructure and tribological behavior of special brass. With the increase of Mn content in the range of 4–10 wt%, the hardness and wear resistance of the special brass were all changed, and the adhesion with abrasion is form the friction behavior, mainly for all brasses. It was observed that the matrix grain size was the smallest, and the hard phase was precipitated the most when the Mn quantity attained the 8 wt% mark. During this period, the brass has the highest hardness and best wear resistance, which results from the grain refinement and load transferring effect of precipitates. It was characterized by SEM, EDS, XRD, TEM, etc., and the results confirmed that the precipitates were Mn5Si3 and its structure was hollow hexagonal prism. The morphology evolution of the hard phase and its growth mechanism have been investigated, analyzed and simulated the nucleation and growth process of the Mn5Si3 phase based on crystallography. The outcomes also showed that the presence of defects on the {0001} faces was the crucial factor for one-dimensional elongated structure of Mn5Si3 phase.

Enrichment of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids from Phyllanthus emblica L. Seed Oil by Urea Inclusion

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are essential to human nutrition. Phyllanthus emblica L. seed oil serves as a source of enrichment for the preparation of polyunsaturated fatty acids by urea inclusion technique. Under optimal conditions (6 g urea per 3 mL free fatty acids, crystallization temperature of −6°C, and crystallization time of 19 h), the purity of polyunsaturated fatty acids was up to 98.47% and the yield was 71.85%. The urea-polyunsaturated fatty acids inclusion complex was analyzed using differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy/energy, and dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. The results showed that polyunsaturated fatty acids can be successfully separated by urea inclusion fractionation. The filled and hollow hexagonal prisms of urea crystal were clearly observed. In addition, the macroscopic and microscopic morphology of palmitic acid-urea inclusion were studied after washing with solvents using scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analysis to understand the involvement of guest molecules in the hexagonal crystal structure. The results showed that washing with solvents could not remove all the palmitic acid in the hexagonal structure of the urea inclusion complex, and the formation of hexagonal structure needed the support of involved guest molecules.

Controlled synthesis of Co2P particles with various morphologies using an in-situ melt reaction

In this article, a new type of Cu–Co–P alloy with different atomic ratios of Co/P has been successfully synthesized, in which the Co2P particles have been formed. By means of the melt-spinning and phase extraction technologies, the pure Co2P particles with various morphologies could be obtained. It has been found that with the atomic ratio of Co/P changing from 1:2, 1:1, 3:2 to 2:1, the Co2P particles exhibit the morphologies of hollow hexagonal and quadrangular prisms, short rod-shape, fine and near-spheroidal particles, fibers and spheres, respectively. Besides of the stoichiometry of reactants Co/P, the non-equilibrium solidification caused by melt-spinning might be another reason for the morphological evolution of the Co2P phase. The synthesis of Co2P particles by the in-situ melt reaction provides an efficient, stable, controllable and green environment-friendly preparation method, in which the Cu–P alloy is supplied as the phosphorus resource. Meanwhile, this discovery provides new opportunities for the synthesis of transition metal phosphides.

Tailored synthesis of hierarchical spinous hollow titania hexagonal prisms via a self-template route.

Novel hierarchical spinous hollow titania hexagonal prisms are prepared through a facile fluorine-free self-template route using Ti2O3(H2O)2(C2O4)·H2O (TC) hexagonal prisms as a precursor. The hollowing transformation can be elucidated by the template-free Kirkendall effect, and diverse nanostructures can also be synthesized during the conversion process, such as the spinous core-shell and yolk-shell nanocomposites. The hierarchical hollow microparticles are composed of ultrathin nanobelts of 50-100 nm in length and about 10 nm in thickness, and possess a higher surface area of up to 163 m(2) g(-1) compared with solid microparticles (49 m(2) g(-1)). This type of morphology is of great interest for lithium-ion batteries because of its shorter length for Li(+) transport and better electrode-electrolyte contact.