Antarctic Exploration Research Articles

Medals awarded to the personnel of the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition, 1902–1904: an inconsistency of recognition

ABSTRACT The 1902–1904 Scottish National Antarctic (Scotia) Expedition led by William Speirs Bruce was overshadowed by the 1901–1904 British National Antarctic (Discovery) Expedition led by Robert Falcon Scott. The establishment of the independent Scottish expedition had been resented by those promoting the ‘official’ British venture and the accolades accorded to each on their return home were very different. The Royal Scottish Geographical Society honoured both leaders with prestigious medals and later, after public pressure, rewarded Scotia’s captain and scientific staff but not her officers or crew. By contrast, the Royal Geographical Society rewarded the leader and personnel of the Discovery expedition and completely ignored Scotia. An even greater demarcation arose when the Polar Medal was hastily created for the benefit of Scott and the Discovery team, and subsequently extended to the crews of their two relief ships. Aggrieved that his men had not received such public recognition, Bruce commissioned his own expedition silver medal, yet did not present it to all eligible personnel. His exclusion of artist William Cuthbertson and taxidermist Alastair Ross is paradoxical given his indignation over the partiality of other awards but may indicate some unacknowledged personal friction during the Scotia expedition. The paper illuminates the politics and personalities involved in recognition of the achievements of early twentieth-century Antarctic exploration after the events themselves.

The Scientific Adventures of Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld and the Antarctic: A Story of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration

The Scientific Adventures of Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld and the Antarctic: A Story of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration

Conjugate aurora observations by the Gjøa and Discovery expeditions

Abstract. From 1901 to 1912 – known as the “heroic period” of Arctic and Antarctic exploration – great inroads were made (not only geographic but also scientific) to our knowledge of the continent. At Amundsen's Expedition through the Northwest Passage, measurements of the geomagnetic field and visual auroras were carried out for 19 months at Gjoa Haven (Gjøahavn in Norwegian; geographic coordinates 68°37′10′′ N, 95°53′25′′ W). Scott's Discovery Expedition – at Cape Armitage, McMurdo (coordinates 77.86° S, 166.69° E), Antarctica – carried out the same type of measurements. Their observations were carried out geomagnetically conjugate to Gjoa Haven, with both stations close to 78° magnetic latitude. In addition, measurements were overlapping in time during 1903–1904. However, these two stations are located at different longitudes, so there is a difference in local time between the stations of about 6.5 h. Gjoa Haven and Cape Armitage are conveniently located for separating disturbances in the polar cap regions caused by solar electromagnetic radiations or the solar wind. Auroras were observed during 7 months per year. This gave a unique possibility to compare conjugate characteristics of polar cap auroras. Comparing conjugate geophysical data introduces some difficulties. During the winter season at Gjoa Haven, they had a bright summer in Antarctica, and visa versa. Thus, simultaneous temporal and spatial ionospheric variations can be marked differently. Still, the average diurnal and seasonal variations were similar. The quantity of the auroral data from Cape Armitage was larger because there they had a continuous watch of the sky. The main findings regarding polar cap auroras are the following. Three different auroral forms dominate the polar cap. Low-intensity auroral bands – then called streamers – were the dominating auroral forms morning and afternoon. The number of auroral events in 1903 was nearly twice that in 1902 and 1904. A marked midwinter maximum was observed at both stations. Many displays were observed poleward of the oval. The large fraction was associated with weak magnetic disturbances. Some forms of polar cap aurora have special magnetic signatures and seem to be anti-correlated with Kp. They can be mapped even if they are not seen. According to recent satellite measurements (Newell et al., 2009), they are probably caused by polar rain and/or photoelectrons.

Sustainable Conservation Solutions in a Hostile Environment: The Historic Huts of Antarctica

ABSTRACT Since 2003 the four surviving Ross Sea huts of the Heroic Era (1899 –1917) of Antarctic exploration have been the subject of a major programme of conservation by the Antarctic Heritage Trust of New Zealand, the Ross Sea Heritage Restoration Project (RSHRP). This paper describes how the RSHRP came to be and the key components which were identified and put in place for the project at its outset. It then explores the learning from and challenges of this significant project, and it critically considers the way in which the programme has been developed and delivered. The example of Scott’s memorial cross is used to illustrate the innovative approach of the RSHRP, and through the case study, the authors share both the successes (and in some cases the lack of success) of treatments, and the learning which has come from this.

“A romance based on information”: The curious case of Clements Markham’s Franklin Expedition novel

Abstract Sir Clements Markham (1830-1916), secretary of the Royal Geographical Society for many decades, is best known for his role in shaping the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration and especially the career of his protege Robert Falcon Scott. His unpublished work of Franklin Expedition fiction, a 350-page handwritten manuscript held in the collection of the RGS, is an understudied artefact which has much to say about Markham’s life, work, and ideology. A work of fact-based history, yet also a fantasy on themes of chivalry, his 1899 novel James Fitzjames…, while occasionally mined for biographical information by scholars of the 19th-century Arctic, has never been fully evaluated on its own terms. An initial read reveals various preoccupations: Christian spirituality; the male body in extremis; loyalty to the imperial hierarchy; and a deep interest in establishing James Fitzjames as a heroic figure for posterity. In this paper, I aim to uncover various meanings embedded in this romance, place it into the ongoing literary afterlife of the Franklin Expedition, and demonstrate some of the insights it can offer regarding Markham’s role as a vital figure in the history of polar exploration.

The Land Beneath the Ice: The Pioneering Years of Radar Exploration in Antarctica, by David J. Drewry

The Land Beneath the Ice: The Pioneering Years of Radar Exploration in Antarctica, by David J. Drewry

Multi-mission, multi-sensor study of the Shackleton Crater constrained for volatiles with emphasis on albedo distribution of the Lunar South Pole

Shackleton Crater on the Moon is named in honor of a pivotal figure of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration Sir Ernest Henry Shackleton. The Crater was formed about 3.6 billion years ago at the Lunar South Pole. Due to the low (1.5°) tilt of the lunar axis of rotation, the interiors of the crater receive almost no direct sunlight and observations by passive hyperspectral sensors are only possible due to reflected light. Active sensors are however able to illuminate the interior surface of the crater and make observations. Here we present the results of study of the crater using data from multiple sensors onboard two missions of Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Hyperspectral observations from Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) on-board Chandrayaan-1, temperature from Diviner Lunar Radiometer Experiment (DLRE), albedo from Lunar Orbiter Laser Altimeter (LOLA) and Off/On band ratios from Lyman-Alpha Mapping Project (LAMP) on board Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) have been used. Permanently Shaded Regions (PSRs) are identified and Shackleton has been found, as reported, to be a PSR. Emphasis has been laid on LOLA albedo analysis of lunar south pole (80°-90° South). It is observed that the Shackleton Crater exhibits significantly higher albedo compared to its surrounding regions. Some regions exhibit albedo even higher than the Shackleton Crater in the lunar south pole region. The findings of high albedo, coupled with high Off/On band ratio of LAMP, extremely low DLRE temperatures in the permanently shaded regions and detection of hydration features in the M3 hyperspectral data suggests higher probability of hydration in the Shackleton Crater.

Glaciological history and structural evolution of the Shackleton Ice Shelf system, East Antarctica, over the past 60 years

Abstract. The discovery of Antarctica's deepest subglacial trough beneath the Denman Glacier, combined with high rates of basal melt at the grounding line, has caused significant concern over its vulnerability to retreat. Recent attention has therefore been focusing on understanding the controls driving Denman Glacier's dynamic evolution. Here we consider the Shackleton system, comprised of the Shackleton Ice Shelf, Denman Glacier, and the adjacent Scott, Northcliff, Roscoe and Apfel glaciers, about which almost nothing is known. We widen the context of previously observed dynamic changes in the Denman Glacier to the wider region of the Shackleton system, with a multi-decadal time frame and an improved biannual temporal frequency of observations in the last 7 years (2015–2022). We integrate new satellite observations of ice structure and airborne radar data with changes in ice front position and ice flow velocities to investigate changes in the system. Over the 60-year period of observation we find significant rift propagation on the Shackleton Ice Shelf and Scott Glacier and notable structural changes in the floating shear margins between the ice shelf and the outlet glaciers, as well as features indicative of ice with elevated salt concentration and brine infiltration in regions of the system. Over the period 2017–2022 we observe a significant increase in ice flow speed (up to 50 %) on the floating part of Scott Glacier, coincident with small-scale calving and rift propagation close to the ice front. We do not observe any seasonal variation or significant change in ice flow speed across the rest of the Shackleton system. Given the potential vulnerability of the system to accelerating retreat into the overdeepened, potentially sediment-filled bedrock trough, an improved understanding of the glaciological, oceanographic and geological conditions in the Shackleton system are required to improve the certainty of numerical model predictions, and we identify a number of priorities for future research. With access to these remote coastal regions a major challenge, coordinated internationally collaborative efforts are required to quantify how much the Shackleton region is likely to contribute to sea level rise in the coming centuries.

Did hypervitaminosis A have a role in Mawson’s ill-fated Antarctic exploration?

Douglas Mawson is a national hero of Australia, having led the Australasian Antarctic expedition of 1911, and survived. His three-man sledging team was beset by a series of catastrophes. First, expert skier Belgrave Ninnis died after he fell into a deep crevasse taking with him half the dogs and a sledge of essential food and supplies. The remaining two explorers immediately turned back to base which was 315 miles away. With their rations diminished they resorted to eating their remaining six dogs over 23 days. Xavier Mertz became progressively ill with diarrhea, delirium, vocal outbursts in rages, and finally several seizures. He died after another seizure. Mawson, alone with negligible food and no dogs for transportation, through his own sheer grit made it back to base camp a month later and was saved. His journal records medical complications with skin desquamation, alopecia, and muscle pain. It has been proposed that these symptoms in both Mertz and Mawson were the manifestations of hypervitaminosis A. They likely consumed greater than a 1,200,000 IU of vitamin A each day from the dog liver they decided was essential to eat to survive. Mertz, a vegetarian, possibly consumed more of the liver than muscle meat, and consequently suffered the more severe encephalopathy and seizures associated with acute vitamin A poisoning.

Instrumental Determination of the Earth\u2019s South Magnetic Pole Position During the Round-the-World Antarctic Expedition on Board the Russian Navy ORV Admiral Vladimirsky

—The round-the-world Antarctic expedition of the Russian Navy that took place from December 2019 to June 2020 on board the Russian Navy oceanographic research vessel (ORV) Admiral Vladimirsky was supported by the Russian Geographical Society and was dedicated to the 200th anniversary of the discovery of Antarctica and the 250th birthday anniversary of Admiral Ivan Kruzenshtern. One of the expedition’s main objectives was to instrumentally determine the position of the South Magnetic Pole (SMP) whose latest location had been measured more than twenty years before. Planning of magnetometric research, its monitoring and processing of obtained data were carried out by members of the Chair of Geophysical Methods of the Earth’s Crust Study of the MSU Department of Geology and the Fedorov Institute of Applied Geophysics. Based on a set of instrumental determinations (modular proton-precession differential magnetometers, vector three-component flux-gate magnetometers, the ship compass), the SMP position was measured to a precision of ±5 km. Proceeding from the 1980 and 2000 instrumental SMP determinations, it is proven that over the past 40 years, the SMP has been shifting at a consistent velocity in the same direction.

Statistical Assessment of Phenol Biodegradation by a Metal-Tolerant Binary Consortium of Indigenous Antarctic Bacteria

Since the heroic age of Antarctic exploration, the continent has been pressurized by multiple anthropogenic activities, today including research and tourism, which have led to the emergence of phenol pollution. Natural attenuation rates are very slow in this region due to the harsh environmental conditions; hence, biodegradation of phenol using native bacterial strains is recognized as a sustainable remediation approach. The aim of this study was to analyze the effectiveness of phenol degradation by a binary consortium of Antarctic soil bacteria, Arthrobacter sp. strain AQ5-06, and Arthrobacter sp. strain AQ5-15. Phenol degradation by this co-culture was statistically optimized using response surface methodology (RSM) and tolerance of exposure to different heavy metals was investigated under optimized conditions. Analysis of variance of central composite design (CCD) identified temperature as the most significant factor that affects phenol degradation by this consortium, with the optimum temperature ranging from 12.50 to 13.75 °C. This co-culture was able to degrade up to 1.7 g/L of phenol within seven days and tolerated phenol concentration as high as 1.9 g/L. Investigation of heavy metal tolerance revealed phenol biodegradation by this co-culture was completed in the presence of arsenic (As), aluminum (Al), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), cobalt (Co), chromium (Cr), and nickel (Ni) at concentrations of 1.0 ppm, but was inhibited by cadmium (Cd), silver (Ag), and mercury (Hg).

U.S. Coast Guard icebreaker operations and science support in Antarctica

ABSTRACT U.S. ships and sailors have contributed significantly to Antarctic exploration and research since the first land sightings of Antarctica in 1820. Since Operation High Jump in 1946–1947, the U.S. Coast Guard and U.S. Navy have operated polar icebreakers in support of United States national interests in Antarctica and the Southern Ocean. In the early years of continuous U.S. presence in Antarctica, they were critical to logistical support in the building of research stations at McMurdo, Wilkes Land, Cape Hallett, Gould Bay (Ellsworth), Marie Byrd Land (Byrd), and Palmer (Antarctic Peninsula). Their icebreaking capabilities have been key to the annual ice escort operations of supply ships in McMurdo Sound and other coastal stations. These icebreakers and their assigned aviation detachments have supported numerous U.S. and international research expeditions and projects in waters that had rarely been previously explored, expanding knowledge in all the natural sciences. U.S. Coast Guard icebreakers supported U.S. State Department Antarctic Treaty inspections for many years. Recently, the role of USCG icebreakers in Antarctic science research has diminished, both in number of projects assigned and areas deployed. A new class of U.S. Coast Guard polar icebreakers is in work, designated as polar security cutters, and it is hoped that these icebreakers will be able to continue supporting Antarctic science activities.

Development of the Antarctic Exploration AUV "MONACA"

Development of the Antarctic Exploration AUV "MONACA"

Immune factors and health of Antarctic explorers

The immune system plays a major role in human homeostasis, yet a body’s unique individuality complicates the diagnostic forecasting of unfavourable physiological states and diseases. Studying the immunophenotypic features of winterers of the Ukrainian Antarctic Expeditions before, during, and after their assignments might shed some light on the possible place of immune accentuations in the development of certain physiological states. To determine the natural-killer (NK) cytotoxicity and the immunophenotype in 52 applicants who wanted to take part in an expedition and nine participants who had come back, we used flow cytofluorometry. Blood serum samples taken before, during, and after the expeditions were also tested for hormones, anti-infective, anti-parasitic, and autoimmune antibodies. The high absolute and relative numbers of NK lymphocytes, high NK cytotoxicity, and high expression of HLA-DR on the CD3+CD8+ lymphocytes were correlated with a person’s unfavorable health status during the expedition. In Antarctica, cortisol levels sharply increased, yet they normalized upon return. In most winterers, there were no significant health complications during the expeditions. Neither reactivated nor primary viral infections were registered, as well as clinical autoimmune ones. Upon return, the winterers had significantly lower leukocytes and lymphocytes and increased expression of activation markers (HLA-DR) on the T-cells. The found risk factors can characterize the polar researchers’ immunophenotypes yet require validation on larger samples. The expedition environment causes increased stress, entailing, however, neither clinical manifestations nor elements of immunosuppression. The polar researchers bear the consequences of the prolonged stress that inhibit leucopoiesis as late as six months after their return, which should be considered while reviewing applications for the next season.

Things in Antarctica. An archaeological perspective

ABSTRACT The representation of Antarctica as the last wilderness overlooks not only the presence of humans but also of material things, and does not reflect the reality of contemporary Antarctica. Human-thing relationships have existed there, although largely unnoticed, since the nineteenth century. This article contributes to thinking about the genealogy of human-thing relationships in Antarctica by presenting an analysis of how the process of living with things has developed over time. Based on available historical and archaeological information, this study explores human-thing relationships during sealing and whaling activities, inside the huts of the Heroic Era of Antarctic exploration, throughout the period of the settlement of permanent scientific stations, and after the coming into force of the Madrid Protocol. From an archaeological perspective this article emphasises how things are not inert, they change, establish relations and that humans in Antarctica have often become entrapped in their relations with things. It is my hope that this introductory exploration into the topic will stimulate critical thoughts on human-thing relationships in Antarctica.

Antarctica and Africa: Narrating alternate futures

AbstractAfrica has been marginalised in the history of Antarctica, a politics of exclusion (with the exception of Apartheid South Africa) reflected unsurprisingly by a dearth of imaginative, cultural and literary engagement. But, in addition to paleontological and geophysical links, Antarctica has increasing interrelationship with Africa’s climactic future. Africa is widely predicted to be the continent worst affected by climate change, and Antarctica and its surrounding Southern Ocean are uniquely implicated as crucial mediators for changing global climate and currents, rainfall patterns, and sea level rise. This paper proposes that there are in fact several ways of imagining the far South from Africa in literary and cultural terms. One is to read against the grain for southern-directed perspectives in existing African literature and the arts, from southern coastlines looking south; another is to reexamine both familiar and new, speculative narratives of African weather – drought, flood and change – for their Antarctic entanglements. In the context of ongoing work on postcolonial Antarctica and calls to decolonise Antarctic studies – such readings can begin to bridge the Antarctica–Africa divide.

Latin-American contributions to the creation of the Antarctic regime

ABSTRACT The 60th Anniversary of the signature of the Antarctic Treaty offers an opportunity to revisit interpretations about the process that led to its creation. Argentina and Chile have sometimes been underrated as significant contributors to the design of the Antarctic regime. This could be attributed to the predominance of rationalist theories in International Relations, which disregard the role of minor powers and non-material factors. Nonetheless, the history of Antarctica shows that both countries were pivotal to the creation of this regime. Argentina and Chile were calling for an international agreement for several years, their participation on the tripartite declaration favoured a limited demilitarisation, and Chile’s standstill proposal of 1948 provided a basis for the fundamental article IV. Both countries developed an articulated agenda to neutralise the political effects of the International Geophysical Year and were very active during the Antarctic Treaty negotiations. While they failed in establishing limitations to the freedom of access, they were successful in avoiding any sort of internationalisation and ensuring the freezing of rights and claims thereby helping to guarantee that international collaboration in scientific research could be sustainable in the longer term. Moreover, their participation in the negotiations imposed two key elements of the Antarctic regime’s environmental character: the banning of nuclear explosions and radioactive waste disposal and the introduction of environmental protection as one of the measures to be agreed. As the only Latin-American countries in the Antarctic Treaty negotiations, they were able to establish a common front and form case-specific alliances that reflected a shared perspective for the southern hemisphere. This example suggests that international institutions are not a mere epiphenomenon of the distribution of power in the international system, and rather minor powers can have an endurable effect.

Archaeologies in Antarctica from Nostalgia to Capitalism: A Review

Epic accounts of polar explorations have dominated the narratives of Antarctica’s past and contributed to a prevailing image of distant wilderness untouched by humans. Archaeological studies have been undertaken from different theoretical and practical perspectives that have helped to either question or reinforce the dominant narratives of Antarctic history. Archaeology began in the late 1970s, focusing on conserving the huts left behind by the expeditions of the Heroic Era of Antarctic Exploration. Since the 1980s archaeological research in the South Shetland Islands region has been focused on diverse topics, including sealing/whaling expeditions. This study presents a historical overview of archaeological work in Antarctica through a chronological approach that describes previous research conducted at the sites of polar expeditions. It also discusses how archaeological practices have contributed to the complex heritage-making process in Antarctica.

"Antarctica just has this hero factor…": Gendered barriers to Australian Antarctic research and remote fieldwork.

Antarctica is often associated with images of masculine figures battling against the blizzard. The pervasiveness of heroic white masculine leadership and exploration in Antarctica and, more broadly, in Science, Technology, Engineering, Mathematics, and Medicine (STEMM) research cultures, has meant women have had lesser access to Antarctic research and fieldwork opportunities, with a marked increase since the 1980s. This article presents findings from an exploratory online survey examining how 95 women experienced research and remote Antarctic fieldwork with the Australian Antarctic Program. Although women are entering polar science in greater numbers, a key theme of the qualitative findings of this survey is that gendered barriers to participation in research and fieldwork persist. We discuss five key gendered barriers including: 1) Physical barriers, 2) Caring responsibilities/unpaid work, 3) Cultural sexism/gender bias, 4) Lack of opportunities/recognition, and 5) Unwanted male attention/sexual harassment. We argue that the lack of attention paid to gender and sexuality in polar fieldwork contributes to the invisibility and exclusion of women and other marginalized identities broadly. To conclude, we point to the importance of targeted inclusivity, diversity and equity initiatives through Antarctic research globally and specifically by National Antarctic Programs.

A Polar Explorer in Insanity’s Archives: Transmitting the Story of Antarctic Wireless Operator Sidney Jeffryes

This article recounts the author’s journey through polar and asylum archives in order to tell the story of a forgotten Antarctic expeditioner. A radio operator for the Australasian Antarctic Expedition of 1911–14, Sidney Jeffryes was a pioneer of Antarctic telecommunications, making two-way wireless contact between the continent and the rest of the world for the first time. However, his mental illness during and after the expedition saw him institutionalised and marginalised from Australian Antarctic exploration history. Telling Jeffryes’ story challenges the way we remember Australian achievement in the Antarctic, but piecing this story together is far from straightforward. With published accounts often eliding his achievements or repeating century-old misstatements, documents preserved in archives become key witnesses to his experience. Dispersed, faded, often illegible, and swamped by the masses of irrelevant documents surrounding them, these feel like the noisy signals that Jeffryes decoded in the Antarctic. In attempting to transmit Jeffryes’ story, this article also tells the story of deciphering his messages from the past. For the conservator, the important lesson is that the material documents held in the archives, although at times messy and frustrating, enabled this retelling. Indeed, this messiness was an integral part of their message.