History Research Articles

Agricultural Productivity and Climate Mitigation

Agriculture will play a central role in meeting greenhouse gas (GHG) emission targets, as the sector currently contributes ∼22% of global emissions. Because emissions are directly tied to resources employed in farm production, such as land, fertilizer, and ruminant animals, the productivity of input use tends to be inversely related to emissions intensity. We review evidence on how productivity gains in agriculture have contributed to historical changes in emissions, how they affect land use emissions both locally and globally, and how investments in research and development (R&D) affect productivity and therefore emissions. The world average agricultural emissions intensity fell by more than half since 1990, with a strong correlation between a region's agricultural productivity growth and reduction in emissions intensity. Additional investment in agricultural R&D offers an opportunity for cost-effective (<US$30 per ton carbon dioxide) and large-scale emissions reductions. Innovations that target specific commodities or inputs could even further reduce the cost of climate mitigation in agriculture.

Spatial and historical patterns of sedimentary organic matter sources and environmental changes in the Ross Sea, Antarctic: implication from bulk and n-alkane proxies

Organic carbon (OC) burial in the Antarctic marginal seas is essential for regulating global climate, particularly due to its association with ice shelf retreat. Here, we analyzed total OC (TOC), total nitrogen (TN), radiocarbon isotope, n-alkanes and relative indicators in surface and core sediments from the Ross Sea, West Antarctica. Our aim was to investigate spatial and historical changes in OC sources, and to explore the influencing factors and implications for ice shelf retreat since the last glacial maximum (LGM). Our results revealed distinct spatial patterns of OC sources as indicated by n-alkane indicators in surface sediments. In the Western Ross Sea, n-alkanes predominantly originated from phytoplankton and bacteria, as evidenced by their unimodal distribution, low carbon preference index (CPI) of short-chain n-alkanes (CPIL = 1.41 ± 0.30), and low terrestrial/aquatic ratio (TAR = 0.22 ± 0.14). In the Southwest Ross Sea, n-alkanes were derived from marine algae and terrestrial bryophytes, indicated by bimodal distribution, low ratio of low/high molecular-weight n-alkanes (L/H = 0.62 ± 0.21), low CPI of long-chain n-alkanes (CPIH = 1.18 ± 0.16), and high TAR (1.26 ± 0.66). In contrast, the Eastern Ross Sea exhibited n-alkanes that were a combination of phytoplankton and dust from Antarctic soils and/or leaf waxes from mid-latitude higher plant, as suggested by both unimodal and bimodal distributions, high L/H (1.60 ± 0.58) and CPIH (2.04 ± 0.28), and medium TAR (0.61 ± 0.30). Geologically, during the LGM (27.3 – 21.0 ka before present (BP)), there was an increased supply of terrestrial OC (TOC/TN = 13.63 ± 1.29, bimodal distribution of n-alkanes with main carbon peaks at nC17/nC19 and nC27). From 21.0 to 8.2 ka BP, as glaciers retreated and temperatures rose, the proportion of marine n-alkanes significantly increased (TOC/TN = 9.09 ± 1.82, bimodal distribution of n-alkanes with main carbon peaks at nC18/nC19 and nC25). From 8.2 ka BP to the present, as the ice shelf continued to retreat to its current position, the marine contribution became dominant (TOC/TN = 8.18 ± 0.51, unimodal distribution of n-alkanes with main carbon peak at nC17/nC18/nC19, and low TAR (0.41 ± 0.32)). This research has significant implications for understanding the variations in Antarctic OC sources and their climatic impacts in the context of accelerated glacier melting.

Game-based Learning for History: Student Perceptions and Preferences

With the rapid development of games in the 21st century, the panoply of games on history shows a wide variety. Backstories from most historical eras have been implemented in different game genres and modalities. Furthermore, a growing number of studies have pointed to the didactic potential of historical games as learning tools. This study aims at investigating university students' perceptions of gaming and their game preferences, with a particular focus on history. The research question to answer was: "What types of games do history students play, and how can games, in their view, contribute to learning in their subject?" Educational action research was used as the overall strategy in a study where data was collected from five different university course groups in general history at the basic level. Students answered questionnaires with open ended questions about gaming preferences and their perceptions of games. The answers were then analysed in an inductive thematic analysis. Findings show that the students play a mix of analogue board games, digital games and hybrid forms. In the transmedial array of games available, important genres include role playing games, strategy games, quizzes and first-person action games. The students frequently provide arguments for the use of games in history education, and they give reasons why they find a particular game useful for this purpose. They describe how these games have a potential to add value to history education. To some extent, they also discuss how this can be implemented. In conclusion, the authors argue that so-called technology tree games are particularly relevant to learning history from a structural perspective, while RPG:s can strengthen interpretive approaches through a subjective historical experience.

”Un compositeur d’un grand mêrite” i Paris – Laura Netzel och hennes kammarmusik vid ingången till kvinnornas århundrade

An interest in women in Nordic music history and a fascination with Laura Netzel's (1839–1927) chamber music characterises this article. In addition to focusing on works, reception, and context, the article examines the question of what role did gender play in the reception of Netzel's and her women colleagues' chamber music? How is the reviewers' understandings of gender and originality intertwined into their texts in daily newspapers and music magazines? And finally: Do possibilities for a transformation towards a more equal chamber music repertoire and more equal music history books exist? Despite Anna Rogstad's (1854–1938) predictions that the 20th century would become "the women's century," the concert scene, and the chamber music environment in particular, was characterized by gender-related prejudices. Still, Laura Netzel received recognition for her great originality and captivating musicality when she stayed in Paris at the turn of the century. In contrast to her male Nordic colleagues, she received glowing reviews where the works are described as bold and permeated with a Nordic tone. The article focuses on two chamber music works from one of her stays in Paris: Cello Sonata, opus 66 and Piano Trio in D minor, opus 78. In the Sonata for Cello and Piano, we encounter a very expressive and mature, but also bold, forward rushing and adventurous Netzel. The style is late Romantic, but also clearly influenced by contemporary French music and in constant development. The harmonics are exploratory, but never proved too demanding for the audience and critics of the time. The Trio for Violin, Cello and Piano in D minor was premiered in 1903 at La société Musique Nouvelle with Netzel herself at the piano. Enthusiastic Scandinavians in the audience were seated together with several famous music authorities of the French capital. Le Monde musical praised it for being written with such great confidence.

Obiajulu’s Children and the Wicked Sons of Eli (1 Sam 2:11–17)

The two sons of Eli, Hophni and Phinehas (1 Sam 2:11-36), served along with their father as priests at Shiloh in the tabernacle, where the ark of the covenant was housed (11am 1:3). While in service, Eli’s children became sons of worthlessness (bənȇ-bəliyyaʿal), dishonest, wicked and corrupt, as well as refused to know the Lord (lō’ yāḏə‘û ՚eṯ-ʾădōnāi) and his teachings. They were unrighteous, greedy, intimidating, immoral, and abusive to women at the entrance of the temple (vv. 12-22). Eli did little to correct them, leading to God’s punishment. Some scholars have examined this narrative with Western historical models, lacking African stories, cultures, customs, and experiences, where there are similar incidences of children’s misbehaviors and challenges of their upbringing in the African context. Using an African Biblical Hermeneutical approach with illustrative stories from Zain E. Asher’s memoir, “Where the Children Take Us: How One Family Achieved the Unimaginable,” this work contextually examines 1 Sam 2:11-17, within the theological contexts of the Books of Samuel and Deuteronomistic History (Josh–2 Kings). It compares Obiajulu’s disciplined and trained children (Obinze, Chiwetel, Zain, Kandibe) and the obedient boy, Samuel (vv. 18-22), with the consequences of the blasphemies and corruption of Eli’s children (vv. 11-17). It proposes lessons that no matter how we perform our duties in the church, schools and families, sadness may still come if we neglect to train our children responsibly in righteousness, integrity, hard work, and in the fear of the Lord.

Prevalence of anemia and related factors among Tabari cohort population: a cross-sectional study

BackgroundAnemia presents a considerable public health challenge, standing as a leading contributor to elevated rates of mortality and morbidity. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the prevalence of anemia and related factors among Tabari cohort population.MethodsThis study involved a cross-sectional investigation carried out during the enrollment phase of the Tabari cohort. The Tabari cohort is a subset of the larger nationwide cohort study known as the “Prospective Epidemiological Research Studies in IrAN” (PERSIAN) cohort. The collected data included general information, anthropometric measurements, medical history and blood samples. Anemia was defined as a hemoglobin level less than 13 mg/dL for men and less than 12 mg/dL for women. Data were analyzed using SPSS V.16.ResultsOut of the 10,073 participants included in the analysis, 1,352 individuals (13.4%) were diagnosed with anemia. In the multiple regression analysis, the odds of anemia were significantly 2.31 times in females compared to males, 3.69 times in urban residents compared to rural residents, 1.41 times in social economic categories of IV and 1.35 in social economic categories of V compared to social economic categories of I, 1.70 times in drug abuse compared to non-drug abuse, 0.71 times in body mass index (BMI) categories of 25–29.9 kg/m² and 0.70 in BMI ≥ 30 kg/m² compared to BMI < 25, 0.77 times for triglycerides(TG) > 150 compared to below 150, 0.76 times for total cholesterol(TC) > 200 compared to below 200, 0.83 times for high waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) compared to low WHR, 1.33 times in low High-density Lipoprotein (HDL) compared to high HDL, 1.18 times in diabetics (DM) compared to non-DM, and 1.37 times in individuals with coronary heart diseases (CHD) compared to healthy individuals.ConclusionAnemia was a prevalent condition among Tabari cohort population. Several conditions including female gender, urban residence, Social economic level of IV and V, drug abuse, low HDL, high WHR, DM, and CHD conditions were significantly associated with increased odds of anemia. Furthermore, BMI categories of 25–29.9 kg/m² and ≥ 30 kg/m², high TC and high TG were significantly associated with decreased odds of anemia among this population.

Sedimentary antimony stable isotope record of anthropogenic contamination in a karst lake in southwestern China

Anthropogenic sources of antimony (Sb) are an important driver of pollution in the Earth environment, but their roles in the historical changes of Sb pollution in lake ecosystems are currently poorly understood. This study documents the sedimentary Sb deposition fluxes in Hongfeng lake (HFL), in southwestern China during 1958–2021 and quantifies the changes of anthropogenic contributions to sediments using Sb stable isotopes. Mean Sb concentration (mean: 1.89 mg kg−1) and deposition flux (mean: 302.1 ng cm−2 a−1) in lake sediments remained relatively stable from 1958 to 1980. Sb deposition fluxes increased rapidly since 1980, peaked at 990.8 ng cm−2 a−1 in 2000, and then decreased consistently, reaching 306.9 ng cm−2 a−1 in 2021. Generally, the historical changes in Sb isotopes were anticorrelated with Sb deposition fluxes and enrichment factors, suggesting a lower ε123Sb signature in anthropogenic loading sources, and highlight the ability of Sb isotopes to distinguish anthropogenic signatures from natural processes in complex hydrological systems. Using a binary end-member mixing model, the contributions of anthropogenic sources to the accumulated of Sb in the lake sediments were estimated to be 20 % before 1980s and increased approximate 58 % during 2000–2015, then decreased to 24 % in 2021, likely reflecting the changes of degree in regional industrial activities. Our results help to better understand the response of Sb pollutions to anthropogenic activities and would in turn benefit the controls Sb contamination in lake ecosystems.

Morfológiai vizsgálatok Magyarország délnyugati határfolyóin = Morphological Studies on South-Western Border Rivers in Hungary

Nowadays, the preservation and sustainable use of our natural values are increasingly coming to the fore, and this has implications not only for economic and field development but also for ecological aspects. In recent years, attention has shifted towards river morphological studies, which were previously relegated to the background. Understanding long-term changes and assessing the current state is essential to estimate future processes. In this article, we present our morphological studies on the Hungarian–Croatian border sections of the Mura and the Drava rivers. Historical changes were analyzed through a comparative study of historical maps from earlier periods, while the evaluation of the current state was conducted based on a detailed terrain model from a recent survey. GIS evaluation was also compared with sediment transport and flow measurement results. This comparison suggests that the morphological status of the river section under study is consistent with the typical parameters of transport processes.

Historical change in associations between perceived risk, disapproval, and use of cannabis among young adults ages 19–30, 2011–2022

BackgroundThe current study used U.S. young adult data to examine overall and age group-specific historical trends in (a) mean perceived risk and disapproval of cannabis use, and (b) risk/use and disapproval/use associations. MethodsData were collected from 2011 to 2022 from 16,492 respondents aged 19–30 in the national Monitoring the Future panel study. Trends in mean risk and disapproval overall and by age group (19–22, 23–26, 27–30) were modeled. Models regressing any past 30-day cannabis use on risk and disapproval controlled for sex, race/ethnicity, college education, population density, state cannabis policy, region, and year. Age group differences and historical trends in regression estimates from year-specific models were examined. ResultsFrom 2011 to 2022, overall mean perceived risk decreased from 3.08 (just over moderate) to 2.50 (between slight and moderate); mean disapproval decreased from 2.21 (between disapprove and strongly disapprove) to 1.66 (between don’t disapprove and disapprove). Higher risk and disapproval were independently associated with lower odds of past 30-day cannabis use overall (AORs 0.86 and 0.76, respectively); controlling for sociodemographics and state policy had virtually no impact on association strength. There were no significant age-related association differences. The risk/use association weakened from AOR 0.84 in 2011 to AOR 0.91 in 2022; the disapproval/use association remained stable (AORs 0.753 and 0.749). ConclusionsYoung adults now perceive cannabis as less risky and are less disapproving of using than they were a decade ago. Perceived risk has weakened as a cannabis use risk factor over time; disapproval has remained a stable risk factor.

The genetic consequences of historic climate change on the contemporary population structure of a widespread temperate North American songbird

Studies of widely distributed species can inform our understanding of how past demographic events tied to historic glaciation and ongoing population genetic processes interact to shape contemporaneous patterns of biodiversity at a continental scale. In this study, we used whole-genome resequencing to investigate the current population structure and genetic signatures of past demographic events in the widespread migratory American goldfinch (Spinus tristis). Phylogenetic relationships inferred from whole mitochondrial genomes were poorly resolved. In contrast, a genome-wide panel of > 4.5 million single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) strongly supported the existence of eastern and western populations separated by western mountain ranges and additional population structuring within the western clade. Demographic modeling estimated that the eastern and western populations diverged approximately one million years ago, and both populations experienced subsequent population bottlenecks during the last glacial period. Species distribution models showed a severe contraction of suitable habitat for the American goldfinch during this period, with predicted discontinuities that are consistent with multiple, isolated glacial refugia that coincide with present-day population structure. Low overall genetic differentiation between the eastern and western populations (FST ∼ 0.01) suggests ongoing gene flow accompanied divergence, and individuals with admixed genomic signatures were sampled along a potential contact zone. Nevertheless, outlier SNPs were identified near genes associated with feather color, song, and migratory behavior and provide strong candidates for further study of the mechanisms underlying reproductive isolation and speciation in birds.

Reconstructing the past environmental conditions of southwestern India using estuarine sediment core

Geological archives can be examined via multiple proxies to uncover significant information about historical environmental changes. In comparison to single proxy approach, the use of multiple proxies can provide better resolution of the paleoenvironmental record. Thus, in the present study, to understand the paleoenvironmental conditions in the Kali coast in southwestern India, sedimentological, geochemical and isotopic (210Pb, 137Cs) proxies were used. The findings demonstrated that, in previous decades, the sedimentation rate varied from 0.5 to 1.0 cm/year under conditions with relatively higher hydrodynamic energy that were more common and fluctuating, allowing for larger sand particle deposition. However, in more recent years, finer particle deposition towards the surface has been observed under conditions with lower and more stable hydrodynamic energy, with a sedimentation rate of 1.87 cm/year. Additionally, the finer fractions displayed a strong correlation with the metal distribution, which was mostly governed by FeMn oxides. Furthermore, it can be revealed that the environment was warm, humid, and marine-like between 1995 and 2000 based on chemical weathering intensity values and Rb/K ratios. A subtle shift to a freshwater habitat with relatively less warm, less humid climate occurred between 2000 and 2020. Therefore, similar research with longer depositional histories coupled with multiple proxies can help predict the future climatic shifts in decadal time scales.

Business Cycle Dynamics in the Romanian Economy: Phases and Developments

Romania's economy is not yet sufficient / complete and competitive connected to the developed European economy and the global one. In recent economic and general political history, the political, institutional and economic changes that have taken place since 1990 in Central and Eastern Europe, including Romania, are already recognized. The article deals with the evolutionary situational stages towards the New Economy of Romania. It also describes the post-transformation horizon for achieving quasi-constant inverted levels between “tangible-intangible” for the transition to a new business cycle in the New Knowledge-Based Economy and Risk. It follows that if GDP reflects the sum of the market value of all goods and services intended for final consumption, not intermediate ones, produced in all branches of the economy within Romania within a year, by way of investigative proximity, business and cycles of manifestation of these were closely followed by dimensional evolutionary trends of similarity and aggregation with GDP. In fact, the New Knowledge-Based Economy has radically and positively changed Romania's advance towards the digitalized society, based more and more on the operationalization of intangible assets. The problem of vision, strategy and development tactics through new business cycles is found in the search for the optimal structural ratio between tangible and intangible assets (knowledge) insurers for competitiveness and sustainability. Keywords: business cycle, Romanian economy, business, entrepreneurship, investment, new knowledge-based economy, tangible assets, intangible assets

Sylwa of Aleksander Jastkowski, a Przemyśl land judge from the second half of the 17th century

Sylvias (from the Latin silva rerum, i.e. forest of things) belong to the category of domestic books manuscript books, created in Old Polish times (17th-18th century) mainly in the noble community gentry circles. They are considered a valued source for historical and literary research due to the historical and literary research due to the variety of materials they contain, collected by their authors without a specific plan according to their tastes possibilities and needs. The author of one of the largest works of this kind was Aleksander Jastkowski (c. 1625/30– c. 1691), a nobleman from the Przemyśl land Ruthenian Voivodeship, a judge of the Przemyśl lands. His sylva entitled. ‘Compendium omnis activitatis politici et rei economicae ex variis authoribus collectae’ (National Ossolineum Library in Wroclaw, manuscript no. 3554) should be considered a typical example of this type of writing. This sylva was created successively probably for more than half a century mainly by A. Jastkowski, and was completed after his death at the beginning of the 18th century by persons unknown to us. It numbers 594 pages and contains in copies numerous materials, mostly relating to public life at the time (approx. 45% of the total manuscript), such as journalistic writings, correspondence and speeches by dignitaries state dignitaries, the Diary of the Sejm of 1652, records of the Sejmik of the Ruskie Voivodeship in Sądowa and others. In addition, it contains notes by A. Jaskowski concerning his private matters, copies of his and his family’s estate documents, extracts from his and his family’s property documents, excerpts from books he had read, and notes on various fields of knowledge (cultivation of the soil, medicine, Polish and general history, legal and constitutional subjects, etc.), literary works, and notes on the history of Poland etc.), literary works, specimens and examples of occasional letters, materials concerning the private affairs of various individuals.

From Handicraft to Intangible Heritage: A Study on the Historical Change and Development of Batik Culture in Anshun

From Handicraft to Intangible Heritage: A Study on the Historical Change and Development of Batik Culture in Anshun

The Printer as Author in Early Modern Book History: John Day and the Fabrication of a Protestant Memory Art

The Printer as Author in Early Modern Book History: John Day and the Fabrication of a Protestant Memory Art

Evolution of global water footprints of crop production in 1990–2019

Abstract Crop production has the largest water footprint (WF) of all economic sectors and ranks as a leading cause of water scarcity. Despite this, our understanding of historical changes in global WFs of crops remains limited. In this study, we analyse the recently published dataset on green and blue WFs of 175 individual crops in 1990–2019. We explore the main changes in unit WFs (expressed in m3t−1 yr−1) and WFs of production (m3 yr−1) and connect the observed changes to various physical and socio-economic drivers. We find that nearly 80% of crops reduced global average unit WFs (required less water per tonne) as crop yields improved and cultivation centred around more productive areas. However, the total WF of crop production increased by 30% as these productivity gains were insufficient to compensate for cropland expansion of mostly water-intensive crops. Close to 90% of the increase occurred between 2000–2019 likely driven by accelerated economic growth, globalisation, changing diets, and production of first-generation biofuels. Among crops, we observe the largest increases for oil palm fruit, soya beans, and maize as they became the main providers of crop-based nutrients, animal feed, and biofuels for the modern economy. Among regions, most of the increase occurred across the tropics, mainly in Indonesia, Brazil, and Nigeria. However, India, China, and the USA had the largest WFs of production over the study period. Humanity consumed 6.8 trillion m3 of water (87.1% green) to produce crops in 2019. This number is likely to increase in the future which may exacerbate already existing environmental and socio-economic issues. Thus, it is important to transition to more water-sustainable agrifood systems. Much potential still exists in increasing crop water productivity, shifting production to less water-scarce geographies, and rethinking our dietary and industrial consumption patterns.

Study on the English Translation of Yue Jueshu

Yue Jueshu is an important historical book tracing back to the source of Yue culture, has been much studied on its title, author, edition, historical value and so on, but less attention has been paid to its English translation. Starting with the significance of Yue Jueshu as a historical book to Western scholars, this paper attempts to make a study on the English translation of Yue Jueshu from textual research on the edition, the characteristics of translation, and the interpretation of annotation.

Assessing the changes in marine microalgae diversity in the Nanji Islands Nature Reserve over the past decades using sediment eDNA

The Nanji Islands, designated as one of China’s national nature reserves, are renowned for their abundant microalgal resources. Changes in microalgae can serve as indicators of marine environmental shifts. Despite this significance, the absence of comprehensive historical records on microalgal diversity has limited the evaluation of marine environmental protection efforts. This study addresses this gap by analyzing surface sediments and sediment cores from the Nanji Islands, utilizing 210Pb dating and employing environmental DNA (eDNA) technology to trace historical shifts in the molecular diversity of microalgae. Chloroplast gene fragments were amplified using rbcL primers, and 210Pb dating determined the deepest sediment layer (78-80 cm) to date back to 1994. From the 70-72 cm layer to the 60-62 cm layer, the number of microalgal reads increased rapidly from 27,716 to 65,143, signifying enhanced abundance over the 10 years following the establishment of the nature reserve. This was followed by a deceleration in microalgal abundance growth over the subsequent 20 years, potentially reflecting variations in primary production of microalgae. Concurrently, the rise in operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and the Margalef index suggest a boost in microalgal diversity, which may be attributed to improvements in the marine environment. The microalgal community composition has shifted from a dominance of Dinoflagellata and Streptophyta to a predominance of Bacillariophyta, the change in phosphate would be one of the impact factors worth noting. This study provides foundational data on the historical changes in microalgae in the Nanji Islands and serves as a reference for exploring the relationship between environmental conditions and microalgal dynamics.

The Transitional Period in Japanese Translation: Children’s Literature

ABSTRACT This article focuses on a study of the transitional period in Japanese translation that was initiated by Yuri Furuno in 2002. This transitional period refers to a time when Japanese-speaking translators shifted their approach from adequacy to acceptability in translation. Specifically, my study examines the situation with children’s literary fiction translation during the transitional period identified by Furuno. It conducts an analysis of the translator’s afterthoughts and a comparative analysis of the translated texts to gain a better understanding of whether or not Furuno’s transitional period is applicable to children’s literature translation in Japan. The analysis conducted in this research reveals that while both translators, whose works are investigated, claimed they opted for acceptability in their afterthoughts, only one of them managed to achieve that goal in their actual writing. In this article, I conclude that my findings align with Furuno’s, and the transitional period could be applied to other genres of literature in Japan, including children’s literature. In light of these findings, this study creates a basis for further research on transitional periods in Japanese book history.

Bilberry Expansion in the Changing Subalpine Belt.

Bilberry (Vaccinium myrtillus L.) expansion in subalpine and alpine ecosystems is increasing due to climate change and reduced land management. This review examines bilberry traits, environmental responses, and ecosystem impacts. As a stress-tolerant chamaephyte, bilberry thrives in acidic, nutrient-poor soils across various habitats. It propagates effectively through rhizomes and demonstrates a phalanx growth form. Bilberry's growth and distribution are influenced by elevation, soil structure, pH, water availability, and nitrogen content. Mycorrhizal associations play a crucial role in nutrient uptake. The species modifies the microclimate, facilitates litter accumulation, and influences soil microbial communities, affecting nutrient turnover and biodiversity. Bilberry shows moderate tolerance to herbivory and frost, with the ability to recover through rapid emergence of new ramets. However, severe or repeated disturbances can significantly impact its abundance and reproductive success. Climate warming and atmospheric nitrogen deposition have accelerated bilberry growth in treeline ecotones. The management of bilberry expansion requires a nuanced approach, considering its resilience, historical land-use changes, and environmental factors. The goal should be to limit, not eliminate, bilberry, as it is a natural part of subalpine communities. Long-term comparative monitoring and experimental manipulation are necessary for effective management strategies.