Epidemic History Research Articles

Production of Norovirus VLPs of the Nine Representative Genotypes Widely Distributed in Japan using the Silkworm-Baculovirus Expression Vector System

Norovirus (NoV) is one of the major causes of acute viral gastroenteritis in humans. Genetic variation is abundant, and prevalent genotypes vary from year to year and region to region. Since NoVs are difficult to amplify in cultured cells, genome RNA-free virus-like particles (VLPs) that mimic the capsid structure of the virus are promising vaccine candidates for the prevention of NoVs infection, and the development of multivalent VLP vaccines is required to prevent NoV infection in a wide range of genotypes. In this study, we attempted to produce NoV VLPs of the top nine genotypes that have a history of epidemics in Japan using the silkworm-baculovirus expression vector system (silkworm-BEVS), which has a proven track record in the mass production of recombinant proteins. In silkworm pupae infected with recombinant baculoviruses constructed to express VP1s, the major protein that forms VLP, the NoV VP1 protein was expressed in large amounts. Most genotypes of VP1 accumulated in the cytoplasm as soluble proteins, but solubility was reduced for that of two genotypes. VP1s of five genotypes could be purified in large quantities (>0.9mg per pupa) by a two-step purification process, and gel filtration chromatography analysis confirmed the formation of VLPs. This study demonstrates the utility of silkworm-BEVS in producing NoV VLPs of multiple genotypes and provides the basis for the development of a multivalent vaccine against genetically diverse NoV infections.

Historical drivers of HCV Subtypes 1b and 3a in Thailand and 6f in Phetchabun, an HCV endemic area of the country.

The World Health Organization has set a target to eliminate viral hepatitis as a public threat by 2030. In pursuit of this goal, Thailand initiated a hepatitis C virus (HCV) microelimination project targeting Phetchabun province, a well-recognized high-burden HCV endemic area. However, the historical transmission dynamics of HCV in Phetchabun, and in Thailand in general, remain unclear. This study investigates the epidemic histories of HCV in Phetchabun, focusing on Subtypes 1b, 3a, and 6f, and their relationship with HCV in other regions of Thailand, using molecular phylogenetic analyses. Our results reveal nationwide the presence of Subtypes 1b and 3a, while Subtype 6f is mainly confined to Phetchabun. The initial spread of Subtype 1b was inferred to coincide with World War II and the period of suboptimal medical and hygienic standards in Thai blood transfusion services, suggesting a correlation between the two. The early expansion of Subtype 3a was, on the other hand, found to correlate with the epidemic of intravenous drug use in Thailand during the time of Vietnam War. The early expansion of Subtype 6f, in contrast, appears to coincide with the period of severe regional political conflict and social and economic instability. All these findings suggest the complex interplay between social determinants of health and HCV transmission. Post the mid-1990s/early 2000s, all subtypes showed significantly reduced population growth rates, aligning with improvements in blood transfusion safety standards, the nationwide "War on Drugs" policy, and enhanced accessibility to public healthcare and HCV treatments. These combined efforts likely have contributed to curbing the spread of HCV in Thailand. Nevertheless, our analyses reveal that the prevalence of HCV in Thailand remains high overall, emphasizing the need for further research and a nationwide approach to more effectively reduce the HCV burden in Thailand.

Development of a laboratory-based model to study the interaction between nutrients and Vibrio cholerae and predicting the spread of cholera outbreaks in the Indian subcontinent.

Cholera is an infectious disease that is transmitted through contaminated water. The disease includes a long back history of epidemics. Despite the numerous hygiene and prevention techniques that have been developed for Cholera, outbreaks of cholera are still reported worldwide. The resolution to this issue lies in promptly identifying the area susceptible to cholera outbreaks, a matter that continues to perplex scientists and medical professionals. It has been reported that Vibrio is effective in nitrogen digestion because it contains the nasA gene. In this study, initially theimpact of nutrients (nitrate and nitrite) on growth of Vibrio cholerae was determined, subsequently a relationship was developed between nutrient substrates and V. cholerae growth rate, using Monod model. Subsequently, the model was applied to large national river quality data set (2012-2014) developed by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and a possible cholerae outbreak zone was predicted. This work will definitely help the policy makers to develop management strategy for keeping rivers safe from future cholera outbreak.

Epidemic forecast follies

We introduce a simple multiplicative model to describe the temporal behavior and the ultimate outcome of an epidemic. Our model accounts, in a minimalist way, for the competing influences of imposing public-health restrictions when the epidemic is severe, and relaxing restrictions when the epidemic is waning. Our primary results are that different instances of an epidemic with identical starting points have disparate outcomes and each epidemic temporal history is strongly fluctuating.

Out of Breath: Toward a New Origin Story of Public Health.

Problems caused by overcrowding and the simple need to breathe represent one of the major consequences of medical racism. With few exceptions, histories of epidemics, disease prevention, and sanitation often focus on municipal reform efforts to clean up gritty urban centers from London to Paris to New York. This article traces how concerns about ventilation emerged during the transatlantic slave trade and continued to be a problem for Black people throughout the eighteenth, nineteenth and twentieth centuries. The article emphasizes that Black people were not just the victims of medical racism but initiated many crusades in the United States to promote better ventilation throughout the twentieth century. This article highlights the work of Black reformers, doctors, and thinkers who fought to create healthy living conditions for Black people.

Introduction: Autoimmunities in the Wake of COVID-19

Our introduction and the essays collected in this Special Section address themselves to the ruins, creations, and legacies of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. More precisely, we ask how our notions of immunity and especially autoimmunity have changed over the last three years. We theorize autoimmunity in the wake of COVID-19 through approaches that consider the material and experiential phenomenology proliferated by the longue durée of both the experience of COVID-19 infection and the pandemic itself. In this way, we connect our inquiries both to the history of recent epidemics—most notably HIV/AIDS—and to broader philosophical and cultural investigations of what immunity means and does. The writings grouped here focus their attentions in different and complementary ways. Some train their analysis on issues of temporality, others on ontology (Does the virus live?). Still others focus on geopolitics and other fields of specialization such as feminist and queer theory, science and technology studies, disability studies, critical race theory, and health humanities. Taken together, we imagine strategies of care and collective survival through notions of autoimmunity that model different, more queerly entangled and cripped understandings of bodies and environments that reach beyond myths of autonomy and sovereignty, eradication, and cure.

에도시대 두창의 예방과 치료: 인두법의 수용을 중심으로

This paper explores the introduction of smallpox variolation (人痘法) as a means of addressing the smallpox epidemic during the Edo period in Japan. It also investigates the impact of smallpox variolation on Japanese society during the late Edo period. I begin by outlining the history of smallpox epidemics in Japan. Subsequently, I document the process of introducing and developing smallpox variolation, which was considered a valuable preventive measure against smallpox during that period. While smallpox variolation was introduced in the mid-18th century, it took about half a century for the practice to be effectively implemented. Several physicians attempted variolation during this period, but Ogata Shunsaku (緖方春朔) was renowned as the first to succeed on a large scale, particularly with children. He authored works such as “Shutohissunben (種痘必順辨)” to advocate for the effectiveness of variolation. Additionally, rather than simply adopting the Chinese method of variolation, he developed his own method that took into consideration Japan's unique climate and environment, hoping to enhance the efficacy of variolation. During that time, the prevailing response to the smallpox epidemic focused on diagnosis and treatment using medicine rather than variolation. While Ogata Shunsaku actively practiced variolation, the shogunate established an institution within the medical department tasked with the prevention and treatment of smallpox. This institution propagated the Ikeda-ryu (池田流) method, which specialized in diagnosing and treating smallpox. Despite disparities in approaches, competition between smallpox prevention and treatment catalyzed the accumulation of relevant medical knowledge and experience in Japan during the early 19th century. Initially, variolation was introduced from China; however, over time, researchers experimented with it in various ways, integrating knowledge from Rangaku (蘭學) and cowpox inoculation (牛痘法). Responding to academic and technical developments, Ranpoi (蘭方醫) made diverse attempts at variolation that served as precursors to the eventual adoption of cowpox inoculation. Examining the process of variolation’s introduction and implementation elucidates the characteristics of early 19th-century Japanese medicine that transcended disciplinary boundaries.

Contrasting segregation patterns among endogenous retroviruses across the koala population

Koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) have experienced a history of retroviral epidemics leaving their trace as heritable endogenous retroviruses (ERVs) in their genomes. A recently identified ERV lineage, named phaCin-β, shows a pattern of recent, possibly current, activity with high insertional polymorphism in the population. Here, we investigate geographic patterns of three focal ERV lineages of increasing estimated ages, from the koala retrovirus (KoRV) to phaCin-β and to phaCin-β-like, using the whole-genome sequencing of 430 koalas from the Koala Genome Survey. Thousands of ERV loci were found across the population, with contrasting patterns of polymorphism. Northern individuals had thousands of KoRV integrations and hundreds of phaCin-β ERVs. In contrast, southern individuals had higher phaCin-β frequencies, possibly reflecting more recent activity and a founder effect. Overall, our findings suggest high ERV burden in koalas, reflecting historic retrovirus-host interactions. Importantly, the ERV catalogue supplies improved markers for conservation genetics in this endangered species.

Viral infections in pregnancy and impact on offspring neurodevelopment: mechanisms and lessons learned.

Pregnant individuals with viral illness may experience significant morbidity and have higher rates of pregnancy and neonatal complications. With the growing number of viral infections and new viral pandemics, it is important to examine the effects of infection during pregnancy on both the gestational parent and the offspring. Febrile illness and inflammation during pregnancy are correlated with risk for autism, attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder, and developmental delay in the offspring in human and animal models. Historical viral epidemics had limited follow-up of the offspring of affected pregnancies. Infants exposed to seasonal influenza and the 2009 H1N1 influenza virus experienced increased risks of congenital malformations and neuropsychiatric conditions. Zika virus exposure in utero can lead to a spectrum of abnormalities, ranging from severe microcephaly to neurodevelopmental delays which may appear later in childhood and in the absence of Zika-related birth defects. Vertical infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 has occurred rarely, but there appears to be a risk for developmental delays in the infants with antenatal exposure. Determining how illness from infection during pregnancy and specific viral pathogens can affect pregnancy and neurodevelopmental outcomes of offspring can better prepare the community to care for these children as they grow. IMPACT: Viral infections have impacted pregnant people and their offspring throughout history. Antenatal exposure to maternal fever and inflammation may increase risk of developmental and neurobehavioral disorders in infants and children. The recent SARS-CoV-2 pandemic stresses the importance of longitudinal studies to follow pregnancies and offspring neurodevelopment.

History of epidemics and preventive medicine in Algeria during the modern and contemporary period

Since ancient historical times, and up to the present day, humanity has been exposed to many infectious and dangerous diseases, which often led to death, and claimed thousands of human lives due to the spread of infection as a result of contact with infected people and carriers of the disease. When an epidemic spreads, or what is called a pandemic, since ancient times, man has tried and worked hard to find preventive solutions to ensure his safety and limit the spread of infection among members of society, including what is known as quarantine, health isolation, and social distancing, which is considered one of the most prominent and important primary preventive measures to confront infectious diseases. In this study, we will attempt to highlight the history of epidemics and preventive medicine in Algeria in the modern and contemporary period (the Ottoman period and during French colonialism), represented by smallpox, typhus, plague, and cholera, as well as the most important preventive measures taken to limit their spread, such as quarantine.

Whole-Genome sequencing in routine Mycobacterium bovis epidemiology - scoping the potential.

Mycobacterium bovis the main agent of bovine tuberculosis (bTB), presents as a series of spatially-localised micro-epidemics across landscapes. Classical molecular typing methods applied to these micro-epidemics, based on genotyping a few variable loci, have significantly improved our understanding of potential epidemiological links between outbreaks. However, they have limited utility owing to low resolution. Conversely, whole-genome sequencing (WGS) provides the highest resolution data available for molecular epidemiology, producing richer outbreak tracing, insights into phylogeography and epidemic evolutionary history. We illustrate these advantages by focusing on a common single lineage of M. bovis (1.140) from Northern Ireland. Specifically, we investigate the spatial sub-structure of 20 years of herd-level multi locus VNTR analysis (MLVA) surveillance data and WGS data from a down sampled subset of isolates of this MLVA type over the same time frame. We mapped 2108 isolate locations of MLVA type 1.140 over the years 2000-2022. We also mapped the locations of 148 contemporary WGS isolates from this lineage, over a similar geographic range, stratifying by single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) relatedness cut-offs of 15 SNPs. We determined a putative core range for the 1.140 MLVA type and SNP-defined sequence clusters using a 50 % kernel density estimate, using cattle movement data to inform on likely sources of WGS isolates found outside of core ranges. Finally, we applied Bayesian phylogenetic methods to investigate past population history and reproductive number of the 1.140 M. bovis lineage. We demonstrate that WGS SNP-defined clusters exhibit smaller core ranges than the established MLVA type - facilitating superior disease tracing. We also demonstrate the superior functionality of WGS data in determining how this lineage was disseminated across the landscape, likely via cattle movement and to infer how its effective population size and reproductive number has been in flux since its emergence. These initial findings highlight the potential of WGS data for routine monitoring of bTB outbreaks.

Evaluation of a multi-component early warning system for pastoralist populations in Doolo zone, Ethiopia: mixed-methods study

BackgroundThis study evaluated an early warning, alert and response system for a crisis-affected population in Doolo zone, Somali Region, Ethiopia, in 2019–2021, with a history of epidemics of outbreak-prone diseases. To adequately cover an area populated by a semi-nomadic pastoralist, or livestock herding, population with sparse access to healthcare facilities, the surveillance system included four components: health facility indicator-based surveillance, community indicator- and event-based surveillance, and alerts from other actors in the area. This evaluation described the usefulness, acceptability, completeness, timeliness, positive predictive value, and representativeness of these components.MethodsWe carried out a mixed-methods study retrospectively analysing data from the surveillance system February 2019–January 2021 along with key informant interviews with system implementers, and focus group discussions with local communities. Transcripts were analyzed using a mixed deductive and inductive approach. Surveillance quality indicators assessed included completeness, timeliness, and positive predictive value, among others.Results1010 signals were analysed; these resulted in 168 verified events, 58 alerts, and 29 responses. Most of the alerts (46/58) and responses (22/29) were initiated through the community event-based branch of the surveillance system. In comparison, one alert and one response was initiated via the community indicator-based branch. Positive predictive value of signals received was about 6%. About 80% of signals were verified within 24 h of reports, and 40% were risk assessed within 48 h. System responses included new mobile clinic sites, measles vaccination catch-ups, and water and sanitation-related interventions. Focus group discussions emphasized that responses generated were an expected return by participant communities for their role in data collection and reporting. Participant communities found the system acceptable when it led to the responses they expected. Some event types, such as those around animal health, led to the community’s response expectations not being met.ConclusionsEvent-based surveillance can produce useful data for localized public health action for pastoralist populations. Improvements could include greater community involvement in the system design and potentially incorporating One Health approaches.

Some aspects of the history of epidemics and pandemics

Some aspects of the history of epidemics and pandemics

Paleomicrobiology: Tracking the past microbial life from single species to entire microbial communities.

By deciphering information encoded in degraded ancient DNA extracted from up to million-years-old samples, molecular paleomicrobiology enables to objectively retrace the temporal evolution of microbial species and communities. Assembly of full-length genomes of ancient pathogen lineages allows not only to follow historical epidemics in space and time but also to identify the acquisition of genetic features that represent landmarks in the evolution of the host-microbe interaction. Analysis of microbial community DNA extracted from essentially human paleo-artefacts (paleofeces, dental calculi) evaluates the relative contribution of diet, lifestyle and geography on the taxonomic and functional diversity of these guilds in which have been identified species that may have gone extinct in today's human microbiome. As for non-host-associated environmental samples, such as stratified sediment cores, analysis of their DNA illustrates how and at which pace microbial communities are affected by local or widespread environmental disturbance. Description of pre-disturbance microbial diversity patterns can aid in evaluating the relevance and effectiveness of remediation policies. We finally discuss how recent achievements in paleomicrobiology could contribute to microbial biotechnology in the fields of medical microbiology and food science to trace the domestication of microorganisms used in food processing or to illustrate the historic evolution of food processing microbial consortia.

HIV/AIDS in Africa

Background: In the history of epidemics in Africa, many infections were considered as fatal to human beings and for that combined actions are required to save millions of lives in the continent. HIV/AIDS virus remained a major risk factor to the social and economic life in Africa next to many other infections. In this mini review, we aimed to examine four solid matters. First, we are going to analyze the origins of HIV/AIDS in Africa. Second, we will assess the history of HIV/AIDS. Third, we will study prevention of HIV infections. Fourth, we are going to look on regional prevalence of HIV/AIDS in Africa. Methods: To study the persistent epidemic of AIDS in Africa we will track the history of disease and will focus on the origin and the begging of the first wave of infecting. The mini review was based on early studies and literature on this epidemic and other official reports and studies that were done by scholars. Results: HIV/AIDS is a disease and health phenomenon prevalent in Africa. It is the most dangerous epidemic on the African continent. It has been observed that there is a lot of misery and suffering among Africans caused by HIV/AIDS. The HIV/AIDS epidemic will continue to have wide-ranging harmful effects on social and economic development for later years. Conclusion: This paper focused on HIV / AIDS as a dangerous phenomenon. This virus is no longer a simple health issue. This Africa's attempts to reduce hunger and increase living standards have been badly affected by decades of development because of HIV/AIDS. Keywords: HIV/AIDS, Africa, Regional prevalence, infections.

Genomic epidemiology of hypervirulent Listeria monocytogenes CC619: Population structure, phylodynamics and virulence

Listeria monocytogenes is a ubiquitous foodborne pathogen causing human and animal listeriosis with high mortality. Neurological and maternal-neonatal listeriosis outbreaks in Europe and the United States were frequently associated with clonal complexes CC1, CC2 and CC6 harboring Listeria Pathogenicity Island-1 (LIPI-1), as well as CC4 carrying both LIPI-1 and LIPI-4. However, human listeriosis in China was predominantly linked to CC87 and CC619 from serotype 1/2b. To understand the genetic evolution and distribution patterns of CC619, we characterized the epidemic history, population structure, and transmission feature of CC619 strains through analysis of 49,421 L. monocytogenes genomes globally. We found that CC619 was uniquely distributed in China, and closely related with perinatal infection. As CC619 strains were being mainly isolated from livestock and poultry products, we hypothesized that pigs and live chicken were the reservoirs of CC619. Importantly, all CC619 strains not only harbored the intact LIPI-1 and LIPI-4, but these also carried LIPI-3 that could facilitate host colonization and invasion. The deficiency of LIPI-3 or LIPI-4 markedly decreased L. monocytogenes colonization capacity in a model of intragastric infection in the mouse. Altogether, our findings suggest that the hypervirulent CC619 harboring three pathogenicity islands LIPI-1, LIPI-3 and LIPI-4 is a putatively persistent population in various foods, environment, and human population, warranting the further research for deciphering its pathogenicity and strengthening epidemiological surveillance.

Distribution pattern, molecular transmission networks, and phylodynamic of hepatitis C virus in China.

In China, few molecular epidemiological data on hepatitis C virus (HCV) are available and all previous studies were limited by small sample sizes or specific population characteristics. Here, we report characterization of the epidemic history and transmission dynamics of HCV strains in China. We included HCV sequences of individuals belonging to three HCV surveillance programs: 1) patients diagnosed with HIV infection at the Beijing HIV laboratory network, most of whom were people who inject drugs and former paid blood donors, 2) men who have sex with men, and 3) the general population. We also used publicly available HCV sequences sampled in China in our study. In total, we obtained 1,603 Ns5b and 865 C/E2 sequences from 1,811 individuals. The most common HCV strains were subtypes 1b (29.1%), 3b (25.5%) and 3a (15.1%). In transmission network analysis, factors independently associated with clustering included the region (OR: 0.37, 95% CI: 0.19-0.71), infection subtype (OR: 0.23, 95% CI: 0.1-0.52), and sampling period (OR: 0.43, 95% CI: 0.27-0.68). The history of the major HCV subtypes was complex, which coincided with some important sociomedical events in China. Of note, five of eight HCV subtype (1a, 1b, 2a, 3a, and 3b), which constituted 81.8% HCV strains genotyped in our study, showed a tendency towards decline in the effective population size during the past decade until present, which is a good omen for the goal of eliminating HCV by 2030 in China.

Remote sensing evidence for population growth of isolated indigenous societies in Amazonia

Isolated indigenous societies who actively avoid sustained peaceful contact with the outside world are critically endangered. Last year, “Tanaru”, the lone surviving man of his tribe for at least 35 years, died in Southwest Amazonia, marking the latest cultural extinction event in a long history of massacres, enslavement, and epidemics. Yet in the upper reaches of the Amazon Basin, dozens of resilient isolated tribes still manage to survive. Remote sensing is a reliable method of monitoring the population dynamics of uncontacted populations by quantifying the area cleared for gardens and villages, along with the fire detections associated with the burning of those clearings. Remote sensing also provides a method to document the number of residential structures and village fissioning. Only with these longitudinal assessments can we better evaluate the current no-contact policies by the United Nations and governments, along with the prospects for the long-term survival of isolated tribes. While the world’s largest isolated indigenous metapopulation, Pano speakers in Acre, Brazil, appears to be thriving, other smaller isolated populations disconnected from metapopulations continue to be extremely vulnerable to external threats. Our applied anthropological conservation approach is to provide analyses of publicly available remote sensing datasets to help inform policies that enhance the survival and well-being of isolated cultural groups.

Opioid, cannabinoid, cocaine, and methamphetamine epidemics: History, risk factors associated with them, and characteristics of drug action

In the last century, mankind has made significant progress in the search and study of new pain-relieving drugs through the targeted synthesis of chemical analogs of natural opioids, cannabinoids, cocaine, and amphetamines. Experience with the medical use of new synthetic opioids, cannabinoids, and amphetamines has shown not only their high analgesic efficacy but also their high danger because of the risks of drug dependence and addiction, which have caused drug epidemics. The paper described the history of relevant drug epidemics, and the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of the most dangerous drugs, as well as the risks associated with drug epidemics, were outlined. Specifically, the risk of drug dependence to opioids, cannabinoids, amphetamine, and cocaine was not recognized until too late. Therefore, the drug crisis was initially largely iatrogenic. In recent decades, controls on the prescription of narcotic drugs have tightened; thus, drug addiction as iatrogeny occurs less frequently. However, criminal elements of society have established clandestine production of drugs and their realization in the youth and LGBT community disguising as new, fashionable designer drugs and devices for their use. Moreover, new synthetic drugs differ from natural drugs in their stronger psychostimulant effects, ability to cause addiction after the first use, and high risk of fatal poisoning. Thus far, no drugs were the treatment of opioid, cannabinoid, amphetamine, and cocaine abuse. However, the development of specific vaccines for these drugs has begun in recent years. Active immunization of drug abusers with specially created vaccines is expected to assist doctors in treating drug abusers in the future.

Psychological effects of COVID-19 outbreak on mental health in parents of children with hematopathy.

We explored whether parents of children with hematopathy had more psychosocial problems than parents of healthy children during the COVID-19 outbreak. An online survey was performed, and a total of 1,116 parents participated. The mental health variables were assessed via the Simplified Coping Style Questionnaire (SCSQ) and the Symptom Checklist-Revised (SCL-90-R). Compared with parents of healthy children, parents of children with hematopathy have a higher possibility of negative coping style (70.9% vs. 33.2%, p=0.01) and are more concerned with media reports related to the pandemic (37.8% vs. 17.6%, p=0.02). In SCL-90-R somatization, obsessive-compulsive, and anxiety scale, the parents of children with hematopathy have higher scores than parents of healthy children (12.50±1.69 vs. 12.23±1.37, p<0.01; 13.42±6.69 vs. 10.47±2.25, p<0.01; 15.21±5.53 vs. 10.52±2.34, p<0.01, respectively). History of visiting Wuhan, and history of epidemics occurring in the community are independent risk factors of parental obsessive-compulsive and anxiety symptoms (p<0.01). Parents of children with hematopathy had evident severe symptoms of obsessive-compulsive and anxiety during the outbreak of COVID-19. Providing psychological interventions and beneficial approaches to parents of children with hematopathy urgently needs to be realized.