Historical Windows Research Articles

Historical windows and their impact on the energy balance of the building

With the increasing emphasis on making existing buildings energy efficient, window replacement in historic buildings has become an important and controversial topic. In the presented work, contemporary trends of European and global scope regarding the replacement of historic woodwork with new woodwork are presented. Based on an analysis of the literature on the subject, the issues of maintenance, repair and thermal modernization of old windows are discussed to try to determine how and to what extent the replacement not only adversely affects the aesthetics of the building, but also the economic aspect and the final energy balance of the building. The purpose of the article is to show the historic window as an architectural detail that is worth preserving at all costs during the renovation of the building, upgrading it to meet modern energy requirements. Attention is also given to the issue of sustainability and respect for the architectural heritage of the building’s surroundings.

Effects of environmental vibration on ancient stained-glass windows

• Lead cames are the most critical part of historical windows subjected to vibrations. • Pressure waves can damage historical windows because of fatigue on lead. • 3D vision in laboratory tests allows locating critical regions in lead junctions. • Long term tracking of natural frequencies can indicate the conservation state. • Concerts produce excitations two orders of magnitude greater than daily vibrations. Ancient stained-glass windows are delicate pieces of art that need to be carefully maintained in order to be preserved over time. Several studies address the problem of stained-glass windows degradation, however, the effect of ambient vibrations on the conservation state of these artworks is not thoroughly studied and understood. In the present work, a wide and general approach was adopted to better address the problem. Two monitoring campaigns have been carried out on the stained-glass windows of the Milan Cathedral, to understand the characteristics of the typical daily excitation and that of shorter duration events, like concerts taking place in the square in front of the cathedral. Starting from the gathered data, experimental tests have been performed on a facsimile window panel. The direct exposure to concert-like sound pressure waves has been reproduced with a laboratory test rig and the evolution of the window panel dynamics has been tracked through a series of measurements. Lead cames, which form the internal metallic structure of a window panel, proved to be the most critical element of a stained-glass window, rather than the glass pieces themselves. In fact, when subjected to a prolonged direct exposure to the pulsating actions produced by concerts or similar events, severe metal fatigue phenomena were observed. On the other hand, glass pieces remained intact during the tests. This suggests that their possible detachment is not due to their direct failure when subjected to a direct exposure to the pressure waves, rather to an improper or weakened fastening of the lead cames. The mechanical damaging processes of stained-glass windows appear to be more related to metal fatigue and subsequent glass chattering, rather than to an expected intrinsic fragility of the artwork. Nevertheless, since the windows of the façade of the Milan Cathedral are protected by an additional structure comprising glass windows, they are not directly exposed to the sound pressure waves, as a filter is introduced between the source and the window panes. This strongly mitigates the vibration levels reaching the window panels. Such an arrangement appears to be of importance for the conservation of the stained-glass windows from a mechanical point of view.

The Chronology of Historical Glass Constructions

Glass surfaces are characteristic elements of façades and make a significant contribution to the authenticity of architectural monuments. Glass as a material is considered an important testimony of its time. Depending on the manufacturing process, it differs both in surface and material composition. The period of high modernism (ca. 1880-1970) overlapped with the technical developments of the industrial revolution, which led from manual production to industrial production. The further development of manufacturing processes as well as the dimensions and qualities of the glass thus shaped the development of glass constructions, which had to be made increasingly slimmer over time in order to guarantee a high degree of transparency. Today, historical windows are often replaced by new glazing made of float glass, which can cause the authentic character of buildings to be lost. A team working on the research project at the Technical University of Dresden and the University of Bamberg has therefore set itself the goal of examining in detail the glass and its construction in the period from around 1880 to around 1970. The aim is to define the living character of industrially manufactured glass from the time before the introduction of float glass as an authentic and style-defining feature of the period. The present work focuses on the chronological presentation of the development of glass designs. Furthermore, the development and use of refined flat glass is analysed and presented. This includes wired glass, laminated glass, thermally toughened glass, insulating glass and curved glass. The significance of historical glass constructions for engineers and planners can be derived from the results and the evaluation.

Historical Window-Enhanced Transfer Gaussian Process for Production Optimization

Summary As a crucial step of reservoir management, production optimization aims to make the optimal scheme for maximal economic benefit measured by net present value (NPV) according to reservoir states. Despite the remarkable success, more advanced methods that can get higher NPV with less time consumed are still in urgent need. One main reason for limiting the optimization performance of existing methods is that historical data cannot be fully used. For a practical reservoir, production optimization is generally implemented in multiple stages, and substantial historical data are accumulated. These hard-won data obtained with lots of time encapsulate beneficial optimization experience and in-depth knowledge of the reservoir. However, when encountered with an unsolved optimization task in new stages, most methods discard these historical data, optimize from scratch, and gradually regain the knowledge of the reservoir with massive time for “trial and error” to find the right optimization direction, which is time-consuming and affects their practical application. Motivated by this, a novel method named historical window-enhanced transfer Gaussian process (HWTGP) for production optimization is proposed in this paper. Each optimization stage is regarded as a time window, and the data in historical windows are adopted as a part of training data to construct the transfer Gaussian process (TGP), which guides the whole optimization process. To solve the high-dimensional feature of practical problems, the prescreening framework based on a dimension-reduction method named Sammon mapping is introduced. The main innovation of HWTGP is that like experienced engineers, it can extract beneficial reservoir knowledge from historical data and transfer it to the target production-optimization problem, avoiding massive time for “trial and error” and getting superior performance. Besides, HWTGP has a self-adaptive mechanism to avoid harmful and ineffective experience transfer when tasks in historical and current windows are unrelated. To verify the effectiveness of HWTGP, two reservoir models are tested 10 times independently and results are compared with those obtained by differential evolution (DE) and a surrogate-based method. Experimental results show that HWTGP can achieve the optimal well controls that can get the highest NPV, and has significantly enhanced convergence speed with excellent stability, proving the effectiveness of transferring historical data.

Eliminating Temporal Illumination Variations in Whisk-broom Hyperspectral Imaging

We propose a method for eliminating the temporal illumination variations in whisk-broom (point-scan) hyperspectral imaging. Whisk-broom scanning is useful for acquiring a spatial measurement using a pixel-based hyperspectral sensor. However, when it is applied to outdoor cultural heritages, temporal illumination variations become an issue due to the lengthy measurement time. As a result, the incoming illumination spectra vary across the measured image locations because different locations are measured at different times. To overcome this problem, in addition to the standard raster scan, we propose an additional perpendicular scan that traverses the raster scan. We show that this additional scan allows us to infer the illumination variations over the raster scan. Furthermore, the sparse structure in the illumination spectrum is exploited to robustly eliminate these variations. We quantitatively show that a hyperspectral image captured under sunlight is indeed affected by temporal illumination variations, that a Naïve mitigation method suffers from severe artifacts, and that the proposed method can robustly eliminate the illumination variations. Finally, we demonstrate the usefulness of the proposed method by capturing historic stained-glass windows of a French cathedral.

Energetic refurbishment of the historic windows of the listed heritage building Alte Schäfflerei and its influence on the overall energy balance

This study examines compatibility of monument conservation and modernization of historic windows of old buildings on the example of the Alte Schäfflerei (Old Cooperage) housing the Fraunhofer Centre for Conservation and Energy Performance of Historic Buildings at Benediktbeuern monastery. Several historic windows are extended to box-type windows and examined in detail. The calculation of the thermal bridges and the resulting U-values of the windows as well as the linear thermal bridge heat loss coefficients result in a reliable estimation of the thermal behaviour of the box-type windows. Via measurements of the surface temperature and heat fluxes on a box-type window the thermal resistance and heat transfer coefficient are estimated. The heat transfer coefficient is calculated in accordance to DIN 10077 with simple and detailed calculation and compared to the estimated calculation of simplified measurements. The energy efficiency of the whole building of the Old Cooperage is calculated in accordance to DIN V 18599 and shows the rate of heat losses of the windows compared to the overall energy demand of the building. For this purpose, the Old Cooperage is implemented with a hypothetical historic usage in DIN V 18599.

The Alte Schäfflerei at Benediktbeuern Monastery – Conjunction of Architectural Conservation and Energy Performance Improvement in a Historic Buildings

This paper gives an introduction into the research and measures of monument conservation and energy performance improvement of the Alte Schäfflerei (Old Cooperage) in the monastery of Benediktbeuern in upper Bavaria, Germany. The works started in 2010 when a contract was made between the Monastery and the Fraunhofer Gesellschaft to establish the “Fraunhofer Centre for Conservation and Energy Performance of Historic Buildings”. Both, resource and energy efficiency are approaches that are in the focus of the research. Moreover, all measures should comply with monument preservation rules and respect the original substance. The calculation of the impact of different energy saving measures like the improvement of the historic windows, internal and external wall insulation, attic and floor insulation as well as the use of renewable energies from the central power station of the monastery on the overall energy demand is presented.

Understanding drivers of illiberal entrenchment at critical junctures: institutional responses to COVID-19 in Hungary and Poland

The present article aims to improve understanding of institution formation in (former) liberal-democratic polities characterized by autocratization tendencies. We examine how the critical juncture created by the COVID-19 pandemic was used, as well as the interplay between antecedent, structural conditions and the particular combinations of political agency and contingency. By comparing the two similar cases of Hungary and Poland – the two European Union countries that have progressed the farthest towards illiberal transformation – and using documentary and interview evidence, we conclude that: (1) whereas Hungary exhibited significant institutional changes, Poland did not; (2) these differences in institutional outcomes can be significantly attributed to differences in certain critical antecedent conditions; and (3) the ability of key political actors – Hungary’s Viktor Orbán and Poland’s Jarosław Kaczyński – to control their own political camp seems to have exerted an unmistakable effect as well. Points for practitioners The build-up and entrenchment of institutions of illiberal rule in (previously) liberal-democratic contexts are encumbered by diverse political and institutional constraints. External shocks, such as the COVID-19 crisis, may offer an opportunity to bypass those constraints and to change institutions permanently. Our study concludes that the extent to which such historical windows of opportunity can indeed be used to achieve lasting institutional changes depends not only on the objective, historically given political and institutional constraints that illiberal reforms face, but also on their subjective ability to act in a controlled, coordinated and coherent manner.

Recommendations For Restoration Of Historical Transparent Coatings In Pushkin Museum

Due to the intensification of historical buildings restoration works that are cultural monuments and related to architectural monuments, numerous questions arise about the possibility of increasing the efficiency of translucent structures, including their energy efficiency, using modern innovative technologies. The cost of competent reconstruction of windows and lanterns with the preservation of historical elements is much higher than the cost of standard modern structures, as a result of which there are numerous examples of barbaric illegal replacement of historical windows with modern ones. This not only spoils the appearance of buildings, but also contradicts federal laws (with all the ensuing consequences). Earlier, NIISF RAASN carried out multifactorial field studies of historical translucent coverings of a cultural monument of federal significance – the main building of the Pushkin Museum, on the basis of which their inconsistency with modern requirements for such structures was established. According to the technical assignment and the project for the reconstruction of the building, 13 options were proposed for the possible restoration of these coatings. To assess the proposed options, a comprehensive computer simulation and corresponding calculations were carried out in accordance with the certified software package “WINDOW TECT”. On the basis of the conducted examinations and computer calculations, optimal solutions were proposed for the restoration of historical translucent coatings of the main building of the Pushkin Museum, providing for the preservation of the original elements of metal structures and ensuring an increase in the thermal characteristics of the lantern and side lamp.

Rates of Window Glass Replacement in Historic Buildings: A Bespoke Computational Analysis Approach for Scottish Planning Authorities Listed Building Consent Data

ABSTRACTSince the Middle Ages advances in manufacture and chemical processes have improved standards of window glass production. This can be identified through decreasing levels of visible imperfections in window glass made ostensibly, prior to the 1950s. The importance of retaining historic window glass cannot be understated with the inherently imbued cultural, aesthetic and historical value. Windows are the element of historic buildings most at risk from replacement by newer equivalents. In order to quantify the extent to which historic windows are replaced, we rely on data published by local authorities. However, this data can be difficult to access and analyse due to the disparate and complex nature of local authority websites. Here we introduce a bespoke computer programme, written and developed specifically to extract planning data with its disparate and multifaceted parameters. The programme enables trends in window replacement over time to be discerned. Within local authorities, both general planning and listed building applications related to windows have a high approval rate. Listing appears not to offer significant protection for windows. Despite the promotional efforts of national and international heritage organisations in favour of repairing and upgrading existing windows, in practice, these appear to have little effect at local level.

Termorenowacja stolarki okiennej

The paper presents the results of preliminary calculations of the heat transfer coefficient for historic windows made for the state before and after their renovation. The aim of the analysis was to obtain the values of thermal insulation parameters demanded by the regulations, while not losing the historical value of the window. The described example of the thermo-renovation concept of the existing window consisted in installing an additional window panel from the inside.

Color of the façades of historic buildings from the turn of 19th and 20th centuries in northeast Poland

AbstractThe article presents the outcome of the research on the façades and woodwork of historic buildings in northeast Poland, carried out by the author in the years 2007‐2018. The need to take such action was justified by intense renovation and construction activity, which contributes to the disposition of historic finishing coats of plaster as well as dilapidated historic windows and doors, at the same time leading to the loss of the original character and the historic value of buildings. The research conducted not only documents the original paint color and plasterwork, but allows for the observation of the dominant trends in architecture coloring at the turn of 19th and 20th centuries in Olsztyn and small towns of warmia‐masuria province. The outcome of the research may help with the restoration and reproduction of the façade polychromy of historic buildings erected at that time.

Projected timing of perceivable changes in climate extremes for terrestrial and marine ecosystems.

Human and natural systems have adapted to and evolved within historical climatic conditions. Anthropogenic climate change has the potential to alter these conditions such that onset of unprecedented climatic extremes will outpace evolutionary and adaptive capabilities. To assess whether and when future climate extremes exceed their historical windows of variability within impact-relevant socioeconomic, geopolitical, and ecological domains, we investigate the timing of perceivable changes (time of emergence; TOE) for 18 magnitude-, frequency-, and severity-based extreme temperature (10) and precipitation (8) indices using both multimodel and single-model multirealization ensembles. Under a high-emission scenario, we find that the signal of frequency- and severity-based temperature extremes is projected to rise above historical noise earliest in midlatitudes, whereas magnitude-based temperature extremes emerge first in low and high latitudes. Precipitation extremes demonstrate different emergence patterns, with severity-based indices first emerging over midlatitudes, and magnitude- and frequency-based indices emerging earliest in low and high latitudes. Applied to impact-relevant domains, simulated TOE patterns suggest (a) unprecedented consecutive dry day occurrence in >50% of 14 terrestrial biomes and 12 marine realms prior to 2100, (b) earlier perceivable changes in climate extremes in countries with lower per capita GDP, and (c) emergence of severe and frequent heat extremes well-before 2030 for the 590 most populous urban centers. Elucidating extreme-metric and domain-type TOE heterogeneities highlights the challenges adaptation planners face in confronting the consequences of elevated twenty-first century radiative forcing.

Characterization of Ancient Chinese Textiles by ultra-high performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole-time of flight mass spectrometry

Modern analytical techniques are playing increasingly important roles in archaeology. In the field of textile archaeology, the characteristics of silk and dyes are important since they may provide essential information on the origin of the material, dyeing techniques, and even historical windows in understanding trading routes of ancient textiles. Here, we first identify the ancient Chinese textiles from Qing Dynasty Royal Palace as silk fibroin by ATR-spectrum, then extraction conditions for dyestuff on textiles were evaluated as it have quite an effect on the analytical results in the chemical analysis, the extract was analyzed by ultra-performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UHPLC-Q-Tof MS) to identify the natural dyes in these ancient textiles. The results showed that a gentle extraction method (MeOH/FA/EDTA) was efficient and berberine, flavonoids and indigo were identified simultaneously in extracts of ancient textiles by high-resolution mass spectrometry. By comparing extraction profiles of pigments in plants as the likely dye sources by UHPLC-Q-TOF MS, we identified Sophora japonica L. and Phellodendron amurense Rupr. as the dye sources in historical silk fibres. The analyses suggest that the bright yellow textiles were likely dyed with a combination of these two plants and aluminium was used as mordant in the dyeing process. The experiment of color restoration confirmed our analysis. This study demonstrated its ability to identify the dyeing technology of ancient China and provide valuable data for the reparation of historical textiles preserved in the Palace Museum, Beijing.

Problems Caused by Thermal Bridges around Windows of Historic Buildings and Renovation Methods

Preserving the old forms and structural details in case of renovation of buildings is a primary issue. The structure of traditional wooden windows, as eyes of the building, defines the character of the facade, the street view and also influences the character of the whole townscape. With the new building energy regulations energy awareness became conspicuous, which is current requirement during the energy crisis of the XXI. century at national and international levels as well. This paper investigates all the renovation or replacement methods of historic windows should be considered.

Continuous Corn and Corn–Soybean Profits over a 45‐Year Tillage and Fertilizer Experiment

Core Ideas Cumulative profit (1970–2014) in no‐till was similar to other tillage types with NPK. Relative profits were more sensitive to changes in machinery than herbicide cost. Return on fertilizer ranged from 56 to 251% for P and K and 69 to 434% for N. Studies comparing profitability of tillage systems often examine narrow historic windows or exclude annual price fluctuations. This study uses a continuous corn (Zea mays L.) (CC; 1970–1990) and corn–soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.] (CS; 1991–2014) Tillage × Fertilizer study in somewhat poorly drained soils in southern Illinois to reconstruct partial annual budgets with historical prices for crops, fertilizers, lime, herbicides, fuel, labor, and machinery. Combinations of tillage (moldboard plow [MP], chisel tillage [ChT], alternate tillage [AT], and no‐till [NT]) and fertilizer (Control, N‐only, N+NPK starter, NPK+NPK starter, and NPK broadcast) treatments were evaluated. The CC profits were highest in NPK‐applied treatments followed by N‐only and Control. The MP treatments were similar to ChT and more profitable than NT, while AT fell between. In CS, NPK‐applied treatments were similar regardless of tillage. Combined costs for herbicide, machinery, labor, and diesel were higher in MP and ChT systems than AT and lowest in NT, but were a small percentage of total costs (26.6, 26.0, 21.5, and 18.2%, respectively). Nitrogen fertilizer offered a return on investment of 396% in CC and 133% in CS while P & K returned 78% in CC and 109% in CS. Sensitivity analysis in CS showed that NT would be less profitable than MP if herbicide costs increased 850%. A 300% machinery cost increase would have made MP less profitable than NT. These findings suggest that since 1991 CS under NT carried the same potential for profit as other tillage systems under full fertility management.

Simulation aided optimization of a historic window’s refurbishment

A recurring problem in retrofitting historic windows is that most traditional means of improving their energy efficiency, e.g. the use of IG units, is often unavailable due to structural and esthetic concerns. Through a refurbishment project of traditional Central-European box windows we aim to investigate the possibility of using less intrusive methods to improve the windows’ heat balance with comparable results. Many different approaches to calculating the energy balance of windows in historic buildings are reviewed and various modelling assumptions and algorithms analyzed to highlight the depth of modelling needed for fenestration heat balance calculation in a historic context. We introduce our new research program for the task: EPICAC-BE, a MATLAB based dynamic energy simulation software. After a validation with the BESTEST suite it is used to compare different retrofit options for a prototype window with and without controlled shading devices. Results indicate the use of double glazing units is not always required or the most favorable. Utilizing the dynamic window concept by combining higher U value with higher solar transmittance with automatic interpane shading can achieve better overall results. Simulations should have a key role as they can lead to designs better satisfying both energy saving and conservational requirements.

Can We Conclude an Arctic Treaty? – Historical Windows of Opportunity

This article examines moments of opportunity when non-governmental organisations (NGOS), inter-governmental organisations (IGOS), the European Union or nation-states have shown interest in discussing or commissioning studies on a comprehensive Arctic Treaty as a way to govern the region.These ‘windows of opportunity’ moments will be studied chronologically, starting from the end of the Cold War and progressing to the present day. It is also interesting to examine these proposals and their positioning against the current landscape of Arctic and global governance. The article will then examine how the region’s nation-states and other actors have actually opted to meet the challenges of this intensely transforming region, asking whether the states or other authoritative actors have been in favour of a comprehensive Arctic Treaty or if they have preferred to adopt some other solutions in respect to Arctic policy and law. Finally, it is of interest to examine the possible ways forward in governing a region that is undergoing dramatic transformation due to climate change and economic globalisation.

The historic windows and doors wooden cottages and a farmhouse built in the Lublin region – selected examples from Village Museum

Lublin is one of those regions in Poland, which was formerly in the villages and towns dominated by wood building. Currently, the vast majority of these buildings, whose number is steadily decreasing is not covered by a protective conservation. This applies especially to the nineteenth-century buildings. The few that have survived to our time, have long since lost their original appearance. Most often changed the roofs, replaced windows and doors, added timbering. As a result of these actions the buildings have lost forever its former appearance. Examples of historical joinery solutions typical for the region of Lublin can now only be traced on the premises of the exhibition Village Museum. The article discusses the types of window and door joinery formerly occurring in historic wooden building in the Lublin region.

Possibilities of Simulations in the Planning of the Retrofit of Historical Double Skin Windows

The original windows of historical buildings represent a significant part of their architectural character and thus the cultural heritage; therefore their preservation should be a high priority. Most of the historical windows in central Europe are double skinned, and for the planning of their retrofit a good understanding of the underlying building physics of such constructions is needed. This is not a trivial question, since these double skin windows differ greatly from most contemporary constructions. It is presented in the article that the low aspect ratio and the large interpane distance results in a turbulent convection with strong vertical temperature stratification in the cavity. This, in combination with the constant air in-and exfiltration through the cavity creates a strong coupling between all the thermal and mass flows through the window and makes questions like what are the exact heat losses through transmission and ventilation hard to answer. An overview is given of the different calculation models that are currently used to calculate glazing area and window heat transfer and their usability for historical double skin windows is evaluated.