Historic Stone Buildings Research Articles

Structural Static Evaluation of Historic Stone Building (Case Study: Zahdeh Building in Hebron Old City)

The historical buildings are of great importance, as they represent the architectural heritage and the image of history.Accurate structural analysis of stone buildings is a real challenge, as the mechanical properties of stone and mortarunits are different and unavailable. The aim of the research is assessment historical stone buildings. An experimentalstudy was conducted to determine the mechanical properties of stone building materials and to modelling validation.A numerical modelling was carried out through a non-linear static analysis based on a macro finite element model,using ANSYS. The result obtained of the model of Zahdeh building is that building can bear its loads in its currentcondition, and it also has the ability to bear loads equivalent to two floors. The proposed methods, are suitable forstructural assessment process and can be applied to similar building models to preserve, both architectural heritageand historic buildings.

Better, not more, lighting: Policies in urban areas towards environmentally-sound illumination of historical stone buildings that also halts biological colonization

Anthropogenic or Artificial light at night (ALAN) pollution, or more simply light pollution, is an issue of increasing concern to the general public, as well as to scientists and politicians. However, although advances have been made in terms of scientific knowledge, these advances have not been fully transferred to or considered by politicians. In addition, illumination of stone monuments in urban areas is an emerging contribution to ALAN pollution that has scarcely been considered to date. This paper presents a literature review of the topic of light pollution and related policies, including a bibliometric analysis of studies published between 2020 and 2022. The prevailing legislation in Europe regarding the regulation of outdoor lighting, which emphasises the complexity of controlling light pollution, is summarised and the regulation of monumental lighting in Spain is discussed. Findings concerning the impact of ALAN on biodiversity in urban areas, and the promising biostatic effect of ornamental lighting (halting biological colonization on stone monuments, mainly caused by algae and cyanobacteria) are described. Finally, trends in monument illumination and policymaking towards environmentally sustainable management are considered.

Bioconservation of Historic Stone Buildings—An Updated Review

Cultural heritage buildings of stone construction require careful restorative actions to maintain them as close to the original condition as possible. This includes consolidation and cleaning of the structure. Traditional consolidants may have poor performance due to structural drawbacks such as low adhesion, poor penetration and flexibility. The requirement for organic consolidants to be dissolved in volatile organic compounds may pose environmental and human health risks. Traditional conservation treatments can be replaced by more environmentally acceptable, biologically-based, measures, including bioconsolidation using whole bacterial cells or cell biomolecules; the latter include plant or microbial biopolymers and bacterial cell walls. Biocleaning can employ microorganisms or their extracted enzymes to remove inorganic and organic surface deposits such as sulfate crusts, animal glues, biofilms and felt tip marker graffiti. This review seeks to provide updated information on the innovative bioconservation treatments that have been or are being developed.

Effects of the drum height, joint type and bolts on the bearing capacity of composite multi-drum stone columns under static and earthquake loads

This paper presents some experimental results and main conclusions regarding the effects of the drum height, joint type, and several bolt parameters on the bearing capacity of composite multi-drum stone columns exposed to static and earthquake loads. The presented is based on a review, integration, and synthesis of several previously conducted studies. Given conclusions relate to the practical application of investigated parameters in reconstructions and strengthening of historic stone buildings, as well as in further research of considered effects on composite multi-drum stone columns behaviour.

Influence of Environment on Microbial Colonization of Historic Stone Buildings with Emphasis on Cyanobacteria

Microbial cells that produce biofilms, or patinas, on historic buildings are affected by climatic changes, mainly temperature, rainfall and air pollution, all of which will alter over future decades. This review considers the colonization of stone buildings by microorganisms and the effects that the resultant biofilms have on the degradation of the structure. Conservation scientists require a knowledge of the potential effects of microorganisms, and the subsequent growth of higher organisms such as vascular plants, in order to formulate effective control strategies. The vulnerability of various structural materials (“bioreceptivity”) and the ways in which the environmental factors of temperature, precipitation, wind-driven rain and air pollution influence microbial colonization are discussed. The photosynthetic microorganisms, algae and cyanobacteria, are acknowledged to be the primary colonizers of stone surfaces and many cyanobacterial species are able to survive climate extremes; hence special attention is paid to this group of organisms. Since cyanobacteria require only light and water to grow, can live endolithically and are able to survive most types of stress, they may become even more important as agents of stone cultural property degradation in the future.

Synthesis and Characterisation of Organo-Modified Silica Nanostructured Films for the Water-Repellent Treatment of Historic Stone Buildings

This study presents the facile sol-gel synthesis of nanostructured coatings for use in water-repellent treatment of travertine stone. The synthesized materials combine surface roughness characteristics with particular chemical compositions to give different hydrophobicity results. The influence of the silica particle coating precursor on the hydrophobicity of the polymeric film was investigated, and the octyl-modified silane was selected for further fabrication of the hybrid coatings. The water repellent properties, together with composition and structural properties of the silane-based hybrid material were measured on model glass surface. The coating with the best characteristics was subsequently deposited onto the travertine stone. The potential applicability of the nanostructured material was evaluated considering both the properties of the coating film and those of the travertine stone subjected to the treatment. The surface texture of the film, water repellent properties and uniformity were determined using scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy, dynamic light scattering and contact angle measurements. The coating’s potential for use in stone conservation was evaluated by assessing its impact on the stone’s visual aspect. All the results obtained from the different types of analyses showed that the octyl-modified silica nanostructured material was highly hydrophobic and compatible both with the travertine stone and with the requirements for use on cultural heritage monuments.

Polymeric materials used in the preservation of historical stone buildings

In this review, authors discuss the pre-requisites to be fulfilled for the preservation of stone monuments, referring both to the selection of appropriate materials (compatibility principle) as well as to the repair process itself. Since ancient times, a wide range of natural and synthetic polymers has been employed for stone recovery purposes. The paper presents the examples of most commonly used polymeric materials along with recent trends in conservation of stone materials.

Natural and Synthetic Polymers Used in the Preservation of Historical Stone Buildings

In this review, the rules applicable to the preservation of stone monuments, referring both to the selection of appropriate materials (compatibility principle) as well as the repair process itself was discussed. A wide range of natural and synthetic polymers used for reconstruction purposes has been described. An example of the use of polymers for hydrophobization treatment of historic stone structures at one of the archaeological sites in Tyritake, Russia, carried out by Civil Engineering Faculty of the Warsaw University of Technology is also presented.

Ultrasonic drilling for the characterisation of building stones and salt induced decay

Historic stone buildings can experience severe decay through salt induced weathering. Decay can be easily seen with the eye but can also occur below the surface. Characterising the changes in the material’s structural properties induced by weathering is essential for the evaluation of durability of the stone and for the decision on the best conservation strategy to maintain built heritage. Minimally invasive, in situ tools are needed to establish the location and state of decay at the site. Here an ultrasonic drilling tool is introduced with a specially manufactured tip to monitor subsurface properties of sandstones. Different types of sandstones with varying compressive strength are tested and an artificially weathered sample is investigated. The tool tip wear and exerted force on the drilled samples are evaluated and compared to conventional drilling. Ultrasonic drilling shows promising results for the use in conservation science to assess stone properties and decay.

СПОСОБЫ УСИЛЕНИЯ ФУНДАМЕНТОВ И СТРОИТЕЛЬНЫХ КОНСТРУКЦИЙ ЦОКОЛЬНОЙ ЧАСТИ РЕКОНСТРУИРУЕМЫХ, ВОССТАНАВЛИВАЕМЫХ ЗДАНИЙ

The experience of reconstructing and restoring basements of historical stone buildings is given using Tomsk as an example. The article outlines the importance of analyzing information related to construction and operation of buildings throughout their life cycle. The main objectives arising during the reconstruction and restoration of historic buildings are formulated, such as the extension of space due to reorganization of previously unexploited cellars, the deepening of basements, the expansion of existing and construction of new openings in the walls of buildings, the construction of new entry points in the cellars, etc. A brief description of the ground conditions of sites for buildings under consideration which belong to the historical ones. It is noted that it is necessary to carry out thorough engineering and geological surveys including geotechnical surveying of soil grounds and hydrogeological observations revealing the appearance of groundwater. It is proved that it is necessary to identify ground characteristics of bearing layer’s foundations which have been changed due to their compaction by the weight of buildings for a period of long operation. Generalized results obtained during the survey and assessment of the technical condition of foundations, as well as of above-ground building structures are given in the article. A classification of methods is proposed aiming to reinforce foundations on a natural basement (separately standing, band, plate and massive ones) using piles. Also we have considered piles that are arranged without excavation, i.e. piles of displacement (pressed and injected). Examples of numerical modeling are given ragarding the operation of separately standing and band-like foundations which are reinforced with the use of piles, when the basement floor’s marks are decreased. When simulating piles’ work using Midas GTS NX software complex, the successive technological stages of pile assembly are used; which allows taking into account the change in the stress-strain state of the base soil.

Mortar Dating Methodology: Assessing Recurrent Issues and Needs for Further Research

AbstractAbsolute dating of mortars is crucial when trying to pin down construction phases of archaeological sites and historic stone buildings to a certain point in time or to confirm, but possibly also challenge, existing chronologies. To evaluate various sample preparation methods for radiocarbon (14C) dating of mortars as well as to compare different dating methods, i.e.14C and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL), a mortar dating intercomparison study (MODIS) was set up, exploring existing limits and needs for further research. Four mortar samples were selected and distributed among the participating laboratories: one of which was expected not to present any problem related to the sample preparation methodologies for anthropogenic lime extraction, whereas all others addressed specific known sample preparation issues. Data obtained from the various mortar dating approaches are evaluated relative to the historical framework of the mortar samples and any deviation observed is contextualized to the composition and specific mineralogy of the sampled material.

A simulation study of capillary transport, preferential retention and distribution of salts in historic sandstone buildings

Salt crystallisation is a major problem of deterioration in historic stone buildings, monuments and sculptures. The capillary rise of soil water is one of the primary sources of salts in stone structures, which evaporates leaving the salts behind. It has been noted that the spatial distribution profile of different species of salts crystallised in historic stone buildings is not homogeneous, i.e. different salts crystallise at different locations. The capillary transport and inhomogeneous spatial distribution of different salts in the porous building materials has been considered to be a result of solubility-dependent crystallisation; however, the factors responsible for this phenomenon are not clearly known. This paper aims to investigate the factors influencing the differential distribution of salts during capillary rise of soil water. In this study, the capillary transport of salts was simulated on two different sandstones—Locharbriggs, a Permo–Triassic, red sandstone and Stoke Hall, a Carboniferous, buff sandstone. The experiments were carried out under controlled environmental conditions to eliminate the possibility of evaporation-driven crystallisation of salts depending on their solubilities. The results indicate that fractionation or differential distribution of salts takes place even in the absence of evaporation and crystallisation. The sandstones exhibit properties like an ion exchange column, and ionic species present in the salt solution show differential distribution within the porous network of sandstone.

Analysis of dark crusts on the church of Nossa Senhora do Carmo in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, using chemical, microscope and metabarcoding microbial identification techniques

The dark crust on the surface of the Nossa Senhora do Carmo church, in the centre of Rio de Janeiro, was shown to contain high salt levels and neogypsum above the original granite. Delamination and scaling were macroscopically obvious. Next generation DNA sequencing techniques were used for the first time to determine the total microbial populations that could be involved in surface deterioration of historic stone buildings in a tropical climate. High levels of halophilic and stress-resistant bacteria and fungi were identified, able to grow at high temperatures, salt and UV levels, and in the presence of low moisture and toxic fossil fuel emissions. Many produced pigments, adding to the discoloration of the stone surface. The most abundant bacterial group was the Actinobacteria, which can burrow into the compromised rock and produce organic acids that further degrade the substrate. Geodermatophilaceae and Micrococcaceae were the major bacterial families. The majority of the fungi identified were dimorphic and present on the façade in their yeast forms, with few filamentous fungi being seen in the scanning electron microscope. Basidiomycetes were the most common group and the Tremellomycetes the most abundant class. Low numbers of phototroph operational taxonomic units, mainly of Chloroflexi, were detected by the MiSeq sequencing method. Initial chemical alterations of the granite surface, together with the climatic conditions in the city of Rio de Janeiro, determined the surface-colonizing microflora. Salt content appeared to be a major driving factor in community structure. This microbial population participated strongly in crust, formation. The final results of biofilm formation on the stone are surface discoloration, induration and degradation of the façade.

Deterioration of the Wall of a Historic Stone Building in a Cold Region and Measures to Protect it

In the northern part of Japan, the air temperature decreases to -10 degrees Celsius in the winter. The outside walls of historic stone buildings deteriorate due to frost damage. We studied the deterioration of historic buildings and their environmental conditions in Otaru and Sapporo in Hokkaido. This paper reports on the observation of the deterioration of the building materials of an important cultural property, the Nihon Yusen Building. We also measured the temperature and humidity inside and outside the building as well as the water content of the wall surface. From these observations, it was revealed that the main cause of deterioration was damage to and rusting of the roof and chimney, which allowed rain water and snow-melt water to enter the rooms. The speed of deterioration is considered to be increasing. In particular, parts of the outside stone wall made of Otaru tuff under the roof on the north, west and south sides have deteriorated; this phenomenon was not observed at the time of the previous restoration. Rain water had penetrated into the stone mainly through the deteriorated part of the roof and rain water gutters as well as through the deteriorated part of the outside wall. Part of the water that had penetrated remained under the roof, on the borders previously mentioned, and between the stone blocks. The freeze and thaw cycles of the water in these areas caused the deterioration of the building materials in winter. As a protective measure, it is necessary to prevent the penetration of water into the building materials so as to avoid frost damage in the winter. It is also necessary to restore the roof, chimney and rain gutters immediately to prevent further damage to the building materials.

On Thermo-Hydro-Mechanical (THM) Fatigue Damage of Historical Stone Buildings

The efficient conservation, restoration and protection of stone historical buildings could not be dissociated from the researches of mechanism of stone decays. While various mechanisms of stone degradations are considered and studied in previous studies, in this paper is focused on the cumulative damage modeling of wall stones due to the fatigue induced from quotidian fluctuations of thermal and hydric conditions. The thermoporomechanics theory of partially saturated media is used to describe the behavior of stone wall and its interaction with climatic conditions. Further, the effective stress concept firstly introduced by Terzaghi is extended for partially saturated media providing a quite powerful tool for design and analysis [. The behavior of a typical stone wall from Chambord castle (Center region of France) is then simulated, taking into account the heterogeneity of the stone-mortar contacts. The climatic conditions are introduced in the model as boundary conditions. The records of temperature and humidity from meteorological stations close to castle are used to establish time-variation of condition with a time resolution of 6 hours. From performed numerical analyses, it is shown that variation of temperature and relative humidity leads to the variation and fluctuation of effective stress in the stone, more intensively on the outdoor. The contact of stone with mortar is a natural stress concentration center, but even there the stress is much lower than tensile strength of the white tuffeau stone. The fatigue of the stone due to the stress fluctuation induced by the variations of meteorological conditions seems to be a major factor of stone degradation. A model is used to assess the cumulative damage of the stone wall as a function of the time.

Antifungal Coatings Based on Ca(OH)2 Mixed with ZnO/TiO2 Nanomaterials for Protection of Limestone Monuments

The presence and deteriorating action of microbial biofilms on historic stone buildings have received considerable attention in the past few years. Among microorganisms, fungi are one of the most damaging groups. In the present work, antimicrobial surfaces were prepared using suspensions of Ca(OH)2 particles, mixed with ZnO or TiO2 nanoparticles. The antimicrobial surfaces were evaluated for their antifungal activity both in the dark and under simulated natural photoperiod cycles, using Penicillium oxalicum and Aspergillus niger as model organisms, and two limestone lithotypes commonly used in construction and as materials for the restoration of historic buildings. Both Ca(OH)2-ZnO and Ca(OH)2-TiO2 materials displayed antifungal activity: ZnO-based systems had the best antifungal properties, being effective both in the dark and under illumination. In contrast, TiO2-based coatings showed antifungal activity only under photoperiod conditions. Controls with coatings consisting of only Ca(OH)2 were readily colonized by both fungi. The antifungal activity was monitored by direct observation with microscope, X-ray diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and was found to be different for the two lithotypes, suggesting that the mineral grain distribution and porosity played a role in the activity. XRD was used to investigate the formation of biominerals as indicator of the fungal attack of the limestone materials, while SEM illustrated the influence of porosity of both the limestone material and the coatings on the fungal penetration into the limestone. The coated nanosystems based on Ca(OH)2-50%ZnO and pure zincite nanoparticulate films have promising performance on low porosity limestone, showing good antifungal properties against P. oxalicum and A. niger under simulated photoperiod conditions.

Effects of surface energies of biomimetic materials for stone conservation on reinforcement properties

The conservation of historic stone buildings and sculptures is recently receiving growing attention and becoming a focus of research. However, it is difficult to estimate the effects of stone conservation, especially consolidating treatments. In this work, some biomimetic materials for stone conservation were prepared. The interaction between the protective materials and stone substrate was researched by testing their surface energy. Some thermodynamic parameters, including interfacial tension (γ fm ) and work of adhesion (W a ), were calculated. The effects of interaction between the materials and substrate on reinforcement properties were investigated. The results show that the strength of materials’ adhesion to a solid surface could be better estimated from the value of W a /γ fm . It is helpful not only to indirectly determine the mechanical properties of the reinforcing agent but also to design some materials for stone conservation on a purpose not on a rather hit-or-miss basis.

Characterization of historic mortars and earthen building materials in Abu Dhabi Emirate, UAE

The Abu Dhabi Authority for Culture and Heritage (ADACH) is responsible for the conservation and management of historic buildings and archaeological sites in the Emirate. Laboratory analysis has been critical for understanding the composition of historic materials and establishing appropriate conservation treatments across a wide variety of building types, ranging from Iron Age earthen archaeological sites to late-Islamic stone buildings. Analysis was carried out on historic sites in Al Ain, Delma Island and Liwa Oasis using techniques such as micro-x-ray fluorescence (MXRF), scanning electron microscopy/energy dispersive x-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), polarized light microscopy (PLM), and x-ray diffraction (XRD). Testing was conducted through consultant laboratories and in collaboration with local universities. The initial aim of the analysis was to understand historic earthen materials and to confirm the suitability of locally sourced clays for the production of mud bricks and plasters. Another important goal was to characterize materials used in historic stone buildings in order to develop repair mortars, renders and grouts.

Advanced design of Chinese traditional materials for the conservation of historic stone buildings

The conservation of historic stone buildings and sculptures is recently receiving growing attention and becoming a focus of research because of rapid changes in weather conditions (pollution, acid rain, etc.). Presently, techniques for stone conservation primarily involve the use of organic coating treatments, but their side effects have been recognized. In contrast, some traditional materials used in historic stone buildings function well for thousands of years. In this paper, we report our research on the reasons why traditional protective materials can provide an unexpected long-term protection. First, calcium carbonate was prepared according to a formula for making Chinese traditional consolidating materials, and its structure and morphology were examined by different instruments. Second, the reinforcing effectiveness of the prepared CaCO 3 powders was tested and analyzed by investigating its surface characteristics. The experimental results reveal that a biocontrolled process occurs, in which an organic template can induce the precipitation of a mineral structure, which in turn results in a great improvement in the conservation of the historic stone buildings protected by these traditional protective materials. This provides a contribution toward the development of new researches on biocontrolled processes and on some protective materials with excellent performance through biocontrolled synthesis.

Synthesis and Characterization of a Novel Biomaterial for the Conservation of Historic Stone Buildings and Sculptures

The conservation of historic stone sculptures and buildings is a focus of research. But there are no completely satisfying protective materials until now. In this paper, a conservative film of apatite has been prepared on the surface-modified marble stone by using a solution of CaCl2 and (NH4)2HPO4 as the precursor through a biomimetic method. The prepared material was characterized by some instruments. Its performances were also evaluated by its ability to consolidate, resist soil and acid. The obtained results indicate that the conservative effects are satisfying and the biomimetic synthesis should represent a new prospective in stone conservation.