Historical Examples Research Articles

Every file is a program, but not the reverse

The concept of a program, unlike that of a file, is an informal one, giving rise to inaccurate or even false assumptions. In this article, we will contest two of them. First, using historical examples, we will show that there are programs that are not files. Then, more surprisingly, we will argue that any file can be seen as a program, since all criteria characterizing programs hold true for files. In particular, we will conclude that there is no technical reason to distinguish between file/program and program/interpreter pairs.

The mechanisms of personalization

ABSTRACT This article draws on Max Weber’s account of legitimate authority to argue that there are three key mechanisms that drive the personalization of power in political regimes: the mobilization of charisma, the mobilization of legality or formal authority, and the mobilization of informal authority. The mobilization of charisma involves leaders using emotional connections with followers to undermine formal institutional constraints. The mobilization of legality refers to using legal discourses and procedures to expand formal executive powers. The mobilization of informal authority relies on leaders occupying strategic positions in patronage networks to undermine or expand formal authority. Each mechanism allows leaders to escape elite accountability through different means. The article illustrates these mechanisms through historical and contemporary examples. It argues that understanding these distinct mechanisms can help explain variation in trajectories and consequences of personalization across regimes. The framework advances theories of personalization by highlighting how personal power relies not just on disrupting elite coordination but on deploying different forms of authority.

Renaissance Self-Fashioning after 44 Years: Hybridity, Conversos, Individuation, and littérature totale

Abstract While Stephen Greenblatt’s 1980 book, Renaissance self-fashioning: from More to Shakespeare, was methodologically innovative within the field of literary criticism, his work also grew from the roots of Jacob Burckhardt’s old cultural history, and his method of new historicism developed alongside the new cultural history. Although certain parts of Burckhardt’s arguments have been discarded, the work of Greenblatt and others has continued to build upon his foundation. Courtiership, anxiety, and the relationship between outward and interior identities, text and context, hybridity, and individuation are all useful concepts for constructing less monolithic understandings of early modern identities. With a European scale, this article traces early modern historiography and literary criticism from the nineteenth century to 2024 and introduces historical examples of identity formation from early modern England, France, Iberia, the Italian peninsula, and the Holy Roman Empire. The article reflects upon early modern examples of self-fashioning in the light of Burckhardt, the Annales, Greenblatt, and others who have contributed to our understanding of agency and identity up to the present day, arguing that these historians and literary scholars have worked together to answer questions that are fundamentally psychological in nature.

‘Power to the Convicted Class’: Re-Assessing Prisoner-Led Movements and Trade Union Organizing

Abstract This article examines prisoner-led movements that have sought the right to representation and improvements in pay and conditions. We argue that this strand of prison organizing has tended to be subsumed into narratives around prison disturbances, studies of movements for prisoners’ rights and campaigns for penal reform. The article considers the extent to which prisoner-led organizations have adapted to their unique set of circumstances by examining some historical and contemporary examples of labour organizing in prison. We contend that questions of class and class analysis more widely in relation to prisoner labour have not been explicitly analysed within contemporary penology, and consider the need for a new approach to critique worker organizing within prison settings.

Black intergenerational healing and well-being: Reimagining posttraumatic growth.

For Black people of the African diaspora, who have survived generational oppression including enslavement, and exist in persistently hostile environments in which anti-Black racism is structural and interpersonal, an expansive view of posttraumatic growth (PTG) is required to promote personal and collective healing. Using the intergenerational healing and well-being framework, the authors examine historical and contemporary examples of personal and collective healing among Black people to reimagine pathways to PTG. Implications for helping professions when rethinking PTG in the context of systemic anti-Black racism are presented. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2024 APA, all rights reserved).

Why Civilizations Collapse: The Cruciality of Social Solidarity and the Dangers of Its Absence

This essay examines the complexities of civilizational collapse, proposing that it is not a singular event but a prolonged process driven by internal conflicts and external threats. It begins by defining the concept of collapse and uses historian Jared Diamond’s perspective to analyze how internal strife, such as loss of cultural identity, conflicting ideologies, and political division, can initiate the decline of a civilization due to a fragmentation of social solidarity. The essay then uses historical examples of the Islamic and Roman Empires to illustrate the importance of social solidarity for the survival of civilizations. It also discusses the internal challenges faced by modern civilization, including issues brought about by globalization, political polarization, East-West conflicts, global supply chain shortages, and how these factors can erode solidarity, posing a risk of collapse to the contemporary “world civilization.” The essay concludes by highlighting that internal conflicts and the absence of social solidarity are the primary causes of civilizational collapse, a theory that remains relevant for understanding the challenges faced by the global civilization today.

Raging Ennui: On Boredom, History, and the Collapse of Liberal Time

Abstract This article aims to outline a theory of political boredom based on the concept of the liberal temporal dispositive. According to this concept, modern politics is characterized by the reduction of political time consumption to enable the growing temporal autonomy of the individual. However, individuals may experience considerable stress in their pursuit to utilize this free time effectively. Boredom arises when individuals fail to “fill” their available time with meaningful actions. Political crises of boredom occur as attempts by individuals to relieve the pressures accompanying temporal autonomy, sometimes restarting political temporality on a new, massive scale. Furthermore, the article examines modern political philosophy as inherently rooted in the liberal temporal dispositive. Through several historical examples, it is discussed how political philosophy may either contribute to imbuing politics with a desire for meaning or abstain from it in an attitude of serene resignation. It is proposed that liberal democracy requires a temporal ethics based on the latter.

The Economic Impact of Successful Businesspeople: The Dual Effect of Wealth Creation and Spending

This article explores the complex impact of successful businesspeople on others and society through wealth creation and spending in their economic lives. The article begins by defining the concept of a “successful businesspeople” and points out its diversity in different historical and political contexts. Then, from an economic perspective, this paper analyzes how successful businesspeople can positively impact society by promoting economic growth, improving production efficiency, creating jobs, and donating to philanthropy in their different roles as investors, producers, consumers, donors, and employers. However, the article also points out the negative externalities that can be brought about by successful businesspeople, such as environmental damage, labor problems, data privacy violations, and public health risks. By citing historical and modern examples, such as Andrew · Carnegie, Henry · Ford, Jeff · Bezos, and Elon · Musk, this article further elaborates on how the economic behavior of successful businessmen has both positive and negative effects, and emphasizes the importance of understanding these complex relationships.

The John Mitchell Lecture 2022: thinking conceptually about groundwater problems

Many excavations and tunnels experience problems and instability caused by uncontrolled groundwater inflows or groundwater pressures that influence stability and soil behaviour. A range of groundwater control measures can be used to overcome these problems and create stable and workably dry conditions below groundwater level. A key challenge for designers is that the performance of the various different techniques is strongly influenced by the hydrogeological conditions at a site. Furthermore, the available ground investigation data may have data gaps or considerable uncertainty regarding key parameters such as hydraulic conductivity or hydraulic boundary conditions. This means that, when working with real-world data sets, there are some groundwater problems where analysis involves so many assumptions and uncertainties that the design outcomes are of little practical value. This paper will discuss how thinking conceptually about groundwater problems can be of great benefit when developing of groundwater control schemes, and that a robust conceptual model helps reduce the risk of designs being developed using inappropriate techniques. Historic examples from the 19 th Century and early 20 th century (before sophisticated methods of groundwater analysis were available) are described, where developing a conceptual understanding of groundwater conditions was vital in developing practical engineering solutions.

Towards defining the public interest in technology: lessons from history

Abstract The public interest suggests a singular approach to a social good, but lessons from history illustrate the nuances of sharing open space, transportation networks, and policy mandates. Serving the public exists across a spectrum of possibilities. In this essay, we consider how the emerging field of public interest technology could learn from previous assumptions about who counts as the public and how benefits or harms can be overly concentrated in certain populations. We situate public interest technology as a growing capability of government public service, an institutionalized professional practice like public interest law, as well as a site of critical inquiry. Our definition of the public interest is motivated by a theory of change that recognizes the strength of inclusion. Punctuated with historic and contemporary examples, this essay argues that by acknowledging conflicts of interest and embracing the marginal, public interest technology could build ethical infrastructures to serve all.

Tradition and innovation: The dual nature of institutional thinking and its implications for modern governance

Institutional thinking, a concept that underscores the importance of internal perspectives and the enduring purposes of institutions, plays a critical role in maintaining societal stability and ethical governance. This paper explores the dual nature of institutional thinking, highlighting its positive aspects and inherent dangers. Through an examination of economic, political, and philosophical forces, the paper identifies modern challenges that undermine long-term commitments and ethical values within institutions. By drawing on historical and contemporary examples, including slavery, Nazism, and discriminatory practices, the discussion provides a comprehensive understanding of how institutional thinking can both promote human well-being and perpetuate systemic issues. The paper concludes by emphasizing the need to reaffirm institutional values, promote long-term thinking, and balance individual rights with collective responsibilities to harness the positive aspects of institutional thinking while mitigating its risks.

The Primacy of Commercial Gain over Ideology in Wars and Armed Conflicts

The paper provides a brief analysis of the causes and reasons for military conflicts and wars in the past and present and makes a forecast for the future. By comparing ideological differences and commercial goals, the author concludes that economic priorities are the primary causes of military conflicts and wars. Analyzing historical examples, the author shows that economic priorities have always been the main reasons for unleashing military actions. The main objectives that the aggressor solved by unleashing war were: expansion of the territory of its habitat; plundering of the defeated; transformation of the defeated population into slaves (cheap labor). These priorities, in the author’s opinion, are the main ones in all wars and armed conflicts in history. Similar tasks are currently being solved by the industrial and banking oligarchs of the United States and the United West in the Middle East, Africa, Latin America and Europe. Other goals and objectives of wars and armed conflicts are secondary and can be realized as additional ones. In this regard, the question of the primary and secondary objectives of commercial benefit and ideology is resolved in favor of commercial benefit. In the paper, on the basis of scientific and research works of the author, it is concluded that the current situation in the world is a well thought out and carefully calculated by the financial oligarchs of the United States and the united West, when a commercial project and its realization should bring them substantial profits, and the population of the planet Earth — destruction, grief and suffering.

The activities of the USSR State security agencies to ensure public safety in Lithuania during the interwar period

Importance. The events taking place in the territory of Lithuania in the interwar period are still controversial among politicians and historians today. Many “blank spots” of that time in this territory were closed for research for a long time, which gave rise to speculation and falsifications. The article examines the activities of state security agencies to ensure public security in the territory of Lithuania in the period from 1921 to 22.06.1941 using historical examples. The purpose of the study is to show the historical events taking place in Lithuania and the activities of the state security agencies to ensure public security in the interwar period in the republic.Materials and methods. The research is based on declassified archival documents of the State Archives of the Russian Federation and the Russian State Archives of Contemporary History. The materials of the People's Commissariat of Internal Affairs of the USSR – the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR (1934–1960), the 4th Special Department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs of the USSR (1931–1959) and on political repression and rehabilitation of the illegally repressed were studied.Results and Discussion. As a result of the October Revolution of 1917, Lithuania gained its independence. Starting from 1919, nationalist organizations were created in Lithuania, the task of which was to voluntarily assist the police in the fight against the Communists and to assist intelligence agencies in espionage against the USSR. With the entry of Lithuania into the USSR, the activities of nationalists intensified. Before the attack on the USSR, the state security agencies launched a preventive blow against the nationalist underground and their accomplices, which reduced their activity in the initial period of the Great Patriotic War.Conclusion. The liquidation of the leaders of the nationalist underground and their accomplices allowed the USSR state security agencies to prevent the destabilization of public order in Lithuania on the eve of the German attack on the Soviet Union.

Dystopian Visions and the Making of Privacy Law

This article explores the role of references to dystopian literature in the context of developing privacy laws. Drawing on a qualitative analysis of a large corpus of legislative and judicial texts from Germany and the United Kingdom, I demonstrate that references to popular dystopian works of fiction like Orwell’s 1984 have animated and shaped the legal recognition of privacy. Specifically, dystopian visions are evoked as reasons that warrant the legal protection of privacy rights. I explore lawmakers’ vision of a technologically empowered totalitarian state and discuss how these connect to historical, contemporary, and hypothetical examples of unjust regimes. I argue that literary imaginations of dystopia are often themselves built on historical experience, suggesting that the aptness for social critique is, as literary critics suggest, built into dystopia as a genre. I furthermore explore how the theme of democracy is employed as a counterpoint to fears of dystopian totalitarianism. Portraying privacy invasions as harmful to democratic ideals discursively amplifies their dangerousness—and thereby works to justify regulatory intervention. My research findings prompt us to view legal norms as a cultural artifact that reflect cultural imagination and literary narratives.

Gauls in the Roman Senate: A Rhetorical Analysis of Claudius’ Speech Preserved on the Tabula Lugdunensis

Abstract The Tabula Lugdunensis, unearthed at Lyon in 1528, preserves part of a speech that emperor Claudius delivered to the Senate in 48 CE, to argue in favour of admitting the elites of north-western Gaul to the Roman senate. This article presents a rhetorical analysis of the speech. Modern readers have labelled the style of the speech ‘bombastic’ and ‘pedantic’, while criticising its many historical examples. An examination of the speech in terms of inventio, dispositio and elocutio, however, demonstrates that Claudius carefully constructs the ethos of an erudite and open-minded authority. Two moments of rhetorical persuasion can be distinguished: first, the Senate meeting in Rome itself and, second, the publication of the bronze inscription at the Sanctuary of the Three Gauls at Lugdunum. Not much deliberative rhetoric was perhaps needed to persuade the senators to agree with their emperor; the display of the inscription, on the other hand, could be interpreted as a form of epideictic rhetoric, which may have given a significant boost to the self-confidence of Roman citizens in Gaul. While some senators in Rome may have disliked the lengthy historical exempla in the oral speech, visitors to the sanctuary in Lugdunum may have appreciated seeing Gaul included in the long history of Rome.

Экономический конституционализм в эпоху Советского государства

The author characterizes the main tendency of the Russian legal science of recent years called constitutionalization and such unfailingly relevant topic as the economic condition of Russia to review the issues of the status of state economies expressed as the struggle of states for sovereignty; against this background, the article mentions a historical example of the growing economic strength of the USSR reached as a result of development of the State Plan of the USSR, the focus of which was predetermined by succession of the two Soviet constitutions of 1918 and 1924.

Threads of control

Abstract This article delves into the intricate relationship between translation and censorship, unraveling the multifaceted tapestry woven by historical, societal, economic, and personal threads. Exploring the genealogy of censorship, the study identifies four distinct sources of censorial power — state and religious institutions, social structures, market forces, and individual idiosyncrasies. From the overt regulatory mechanisms of totalitarian regimes to the subtle influences of structural censorship and market-driven constraints, the article navigates the challenges posed to freedom of expression within the dynamic realm of translation. Drawing from historical examples and theoretical frameworks, the discussion highlights the impact of censorship on translators and translated works, illustrating how institutional, societal, economic, and personal forces shape communicative landscapes. By scrutinizing these diverse facets, this article offers a comprehensive understanding of the complexities surrounding translation censorship, encouraging ongoing examination of the ever-evolving forces shaping the world of translation.

The Value of Mistakes: A Pathway to Experience and Wisdom

This article explores the essential role of mistakes in personal and professional development, emphasizing how errors can serve as catalysts for growth and the acquisition of wisdom. Drawing on historical examples, literary figures, and psychological perspectives, the article highlights how learning from mistakes fosters resilience and deeper self-awareness. It also examines the broader consequences of mistakes, stressing the importance of mindful decision-making to minimize harm to others. Ultimately, the article argues that mistakes, while painful, are valuable tools that help individuals evolve and succeed in both life and work.

Links between climatic histories and the rise and fall of a Pacific chiefdom.

Sea level rise and climate change are shaping present societies, particularly those on oceanic islands. Few historical examples could serve as references for these changes. One such potential model is the Saudeleur Dynasty with its capital Nan Madol on the Pacific Island of Pohnpei. However, the timing of its construction, as well as the dynasty's fluctuations and potential environmental influences, has remained unresolved. Through the analyses of 230Th ages on 171 dates on corals fragments used as building materials and charcoal 14C ages from excavations, 2 major construction phases spanning from the 10th to the 15th century CE can be discerned. The results show that the first phase of the site's construction, spanning the 10th-12th century, marked the dynasty's rise. The second period, spanning from the late 12th to the early 15th century, provides the most substantial evidence for the demise of the island-scale chiefdom and a significant societal reorganization. The phases are centuries earlier than previously believed. With this new evidence, we propose the hypothesis that variations in the El Niño-Southern Oscillation and subsidence-related sea level rise presented major challenges for building and maintaining Nan Madol, and thus, influenced the course of the island's history. This case serves as a compelling example of how adverse climatic conditions can spur investments-in this case, in seawater defense under high sea levels-yet ultimately may contribute to abandonment. It offers lessons for island nations, showcasing coastal resilience in the face of worsening catastrophic events that unfolded over generations.

The Movement: Reproductive Health and Rights in 2024

Women’s sexual and reproductive health (SRH) encompasses several topics, including but not limited to sexual expression, pregnancy, childbirth, contraception, and diseases of the reproductive system. The use of legal authority and power, as well as political influence, have long been factors used to regulate women’s SRH. In the United States (U.S.), examples of state and national legislation have been undertaken to impact SRH and medical treatment and decision-making related to SRH. Several national and international organizations engage in sexual and reproductive health rights (SRHR) activities. The activities of these national and international organizations in SRH often include policy formulation, data collection, monitoring, reporting, and other functions. While definitions of sexual and reproductive health rights vary, there are commonalities and core issues that can be identified. These include issues related to the LGBTQ population, immigration, and reproductive health rights among minoritized groups, which are leading topics wrapped around SRHR and of debate in recent history. This article aims to discuss sexual and reproductive health in promoting population health and societal well-being, recent policy decisions impacting SRH, and the role nurses play in shaping research, practice, and policies. For this paper, sexual and reproductive health rights (SRHR) are defined as an extension of human rights relating to an individual’s autonomy, sexuality, sexual expression, reproduction, and access to information and resources on SRH. SRHR also includes freedom from violence, discrimination, and mistreatment. While a comprehensive review of these areas is beyond this article's scope, historical and recent examples are illustrated.