Historical Wooden Buildings Research Articles

Improving seismic performance for inclined historical building by using external protection structure: Case study of Yingxian wooden pagoda, China

Historical wooden buildings constitute a significant segment of the architectural heritage worldwide. However, these structures are susceptible to component deterioration and structural inclination, potential collapse due to material degradation and the impact of external loads. The fundamental objective in conserving these historical wooden buildings is to safeguard them from such catastrophic failures, thereby preserving their intrinsic value and extending their longevity. To address this issue, a scientific control method based on the principle of minimum intervention has been proposed, termed the “zero-interference method”. This approach is designed to mitigate the progression of structural inclination and enhance the seismic resilience of ancient wooden structures without imposing any disruptive influences. The ancient wooden building is surrounded by an external protection structure (EPS) that is connected to the inclined part. This study uses the FE model of the Yingxian wooden pagoda in China to analyze the structural responses in both pre- and post-reinforcement, validating the effectiveness of the method. Additionally, the parameters of the EPS are discussed. The results reveal that the zero-interference method can effectively mitigate the progression of structural inclination and reduce the seismic responses of the wooden pagoda. The maximum reduction of story drift can reach over 50 %. The wooden pagoda is connected to an EPSwith concentrically braced support by using BRBs, improving the seismic performance. Notably, this study offers a valuable contribution to the field, presenting a methodological framework for augmenting the structural rigidity and curtailing displacement in historical wooden buildings.

Education, innovation and research in wooden architecture and construction in the Alps

The essay explores the importance of teaching and research in the building cultures of specific territories, with a particular focus on the use of wood in construction. Through interviews with experts from research centres and universities, such as Andreja Kutnar from InnoRenew CoE in Slovenia, Frédéric Pichelin from the Bern University of Applied Sciences in Switzerland, and Florian Court from the Haute École du Bois et de la Forêt association in France, the essay highlights how such institutions are promoting innovation and sustainable development in the wooden construction sector. Kutnar emphasises the importance of interdisciplinary and holistic research to develop renewable materials and improve the quality of the built environment. Pichelin discusses how innovation can emerge from the integration of new technologies and biobased materials, while Court addresses the challenge of industrialising wood production processes while preserving unique local characteristics. The essay also examines future challenges for wooden architecture in the Alps, such as climate change and the need for sustainable resources, highlighting projects like VETA/NOVA developed by the Bern University of Applied Sciences, which aims to develop guidelines for the restoration of historic wooden buildings. Finally, it discusses the possibility of translating global prerogatives into a local context, influencing the contemporary architectural identity of the Alps and its multidimensional impact on the territory.

Time demands of traditional hand-hewing techniques for sustainable repair of wooden heritage structures: A comparative study

The hand-hewing of timber has been a fundamental skill for carpenters throughout history. Inevitably though, the majority of wood used in construction at the present time is processed with the use of machines. Repairing heritage objects with machined wood however, as opposed to working replacement timber using similar craft methods and tools as those used in the original, is often in conflict with the principles set forth in the Venice Charter for the Conservation and Restoration of Monuments and Sites. Ultimately, relying on mechanization is a missed opportunity to contribute to the preservation of valued intangible cultural heritage.Whereas the sustainability of traditional woodworking techniques and technologies can be promoted by applying them in the conservation of historical wooden buildings, the labor-intensive and time-consuming nature of manual woodworking makes feasibility questionable. In order to provide valuable insight for planners and monument care workers, the paper presents a study on the time demands associated with processing hand-hewn beams intended for use in the structural repair of wooden heritage objects.A series of experiments was conducted wherein a total of 94 beams 18×22 cm in profile and 2.5 m in length were hewn from spruce logs of various diameters. The relationship between initial log diameter and required processing time is presented as a linear function. The relative proportions of the individual steps to the hewing process as a whole were also documented and showed a clear dependency on the total amount of material removal required. The overall processing time was significantly reduced in the case of timber that was soaked for several months before being hewn into beams, and the low-work hewing technique was shown to be more efficient in comparison to high work on trestles.This paper has been published in memory of Petr Růžička, the great pioneer of forgotten carpentry techniques whose work opened a window to our past for future generations.

Cycles of change: enhancing collaboration and communication in Norwegian municipalities to strengthen heritage preparedness for extreme events

This article considers the development of a framework to collaboratively identify and address the most pressing needs for application of climate change research to the preservation of cultural heritage in Norway. Its focus is on historic wooden buildings, at increased risk from fire and flood due to climate change. Drawing from the field of translational research, the MICHON project identified the need for targeted, systematic knowledge networks in preparedness planning for cultural heritage environments. This was developed through a combination of desk-based research and extensive collaboration with Norwegian municipalities, fire brigades and local communities. The process has included evaluation of policy and practice in diverse case sites to frame a networking methodology that builds on Lean Construction and the backwards planning method. The interaction between researcher and practitioner has been at the forefront of the project and the iterative design has already shown transformative impacts to both practice and research.

Roof systems in historical wooden buildings in Kastamonu

Bu çalışmanın amacı, Kastamonu ilinde varlığını koruyan tarihi ahşap yapıların özellikle çatılarının görünüş, tasarım ve karakteristik özellikleri hakkında bilgi verilerek çatı formu çizimleri ile şehrin mimari kimliğinin oluşmasındaki etkisini incelemektir. Bu kapsamda, Kastamonu ilinin merkezinde bulunan mimari nitelikteki 26 adet tarihi konağın ahşap çatı kısımları incelenmiştir. Yapıların çatıları incelendiğinde; iki, üç ve dört yüzeye sahip kırma, haçvari sekiz yüzeye sahip kırma, fenerli kırma çatıların bulunduğu ve tamamının geometrik formuna göre oturtma çatı özelliğinde olup aşık, mertek, payanda, göğüsleme, dikme gibi çatı elemanlarında düz ve lambalı birleştirme uygulandığı tespit edilmiştir. Çıkma, saçak süslemeleri, cihannüma gibi karakteristik özelliklerin ön plana çıktığı gözlemlenmiştir. Şehirde mevcut bulunan tarihi yapılardan ayrıcalıklı niteliğe sahip bir adet haçvari çatı tipinde konak, bir adet kule çatı tipinde konak da çalışmada yer almıştır. Sonuç olarak Kastamonu mimari kimliği oluşumunda büyük öneme sahip tarihî konakların ahşap çatıları teknik, görsel ve işlev yönünden incelenmiş ve tespitler ortaya konulmuştur.

ELŻBIETA DĄMBSKA-ŚMIAŁOWSKA (1924-2021); ARCHITEKT, BADACZ I DYDAKTYK

Elżbieta Dąmbska-Śmiałowska graduated from and worked at the Cracow University of Technology. Apart from teaching General Building Construction and Material Science courses, she conducted research on historical wooden and masonry buildings. She was a humanist shaped by Eastern Borderlands culture, familial tradition and the experience of the Second World War. Underground education, including university education, became the foundation of her studies in the Kraków School of architecture, her academic work and post of vice dean. Her research was conducted in a team of dedicated co-workers and doctoral candidates.

Effects of natural weathering on aged wood from historic wooden building: diagnosis of the oxidative degradation

Historic wooden buildings located outdoors are exposed to natural weathering conditions for extended periods of time, causing deterioration of wood properties by sunlight, oxygen, and other environmental factors. Current diagnostic procedures are limited to macroscopic inspection. In this interdisciplinary study, several aged samples from Yingxian Wooden Pagoda (ca. 1056 AD) were analyzed. Their micro-morphology and changes in chemical composition were investigated using less invasive multi-chemical techniques. The aim is to elucidate the oxidative degradation and its deterioration mechanism of the wood, which is essential in identifying the key factors responsible for natural weathering and devising strategies to counteract the surface deterioration. All aged wood samples had varying degrees of decay and lignin content was decreased in most of them. The high ratio of oxygen/carbon elements evidenced the occurrence of chemical reactions. In particular, the increasing ratio of oxygenated carbon/unoxygenated carbon indicates potential oxidation reactions. Overall, for the aged wood of historic wood building under warm-dry natural conditions, their deterioration occurred through the oxidative degradation of lignin. These unique results are useful in developing effective repair and restoration measures to conserve wooden components in historic buildings.

The flame spread performance over discrete wooden chips varying wood species

Wood is believed to be a good material used for the thermal insulation of building. However, the wood species vary greatly from region to region in China. With an aim to have a deep understanding of the influence of wood species on upward flame spread performance, a series of tests were conducted to obtain the profile of mass loss rate (MLR), flame spread rate (FSR), total burning duration (TBD), and the maximum flame characteristic length (MFL) by using a traditional flame spreading measurement facility. During the tests, beech wood, fir wood, pine wood, camphor wood and elm wood were selected as typical samples. The results and discussion indicate that wood species imposed a strong effect on the flame spread performance. The total burning duration (TBD) of wood with high moisture content and high solidity is significantly higher than that of other types of wood. Softwoods with higher lignin content and lower hemicellulose can increase the FSR to a certain extent. Moreover, the moisture content of wood is found to have a big impact on the MLR. Based on the discussion of different parameters, it can be judged that the fire safety of the historic wooden buildings made of Fir wood is more excellent than others.

Effect of natural aging on selected properties of wooden facade elements made of scots pine and chestnut

Identifying wood species of each wood element of a historical wooden building and investigating the changes in wood properties due to exposed outdoors during its service life are important prerequisites for the maintenance and renovation of historical wooden buildings. In the present study, the changes in wood properties occurring during natural aging of two facade elements taken from a traditional house, which has a service life of approximately 100 years, were investigated. Destructive tests were used for the experiments. The wood species, moisture content, wood density, water absorption rate and chemical structure of both facade elements were determined. Microscopic analysis revealed that the molding was made from the wood of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the window jamb was made from chestnut (Castanea sativa). It was found that the cellulose and lignin on the outer surface of aged woods of both facade elements were degraded according to the FTIR analysis. The moisture and density values of aged wood for both facade elements were smaller than those of recent wood. The water absorption rates of aged woods of both molding and window jamb increased with natural aging.

Problems and Technical Issues in the Diagnosis, Conservation, and Rehabilitation of Structures of Historical Wooden Buildings with a Focus on Wooden Historic Buildings in Poland

This article discusses the problems and technical issues related to the conservation and rehabilitation of historic wooden structures. Showing the history of wooden construction in Europe and Poland, it analyzes the technical solutions used for the timber structure of buildings. The author highlights the leading technical and conservation issues arising from the principles of conservation of wooden heritage buildings, taking into account the role, importance, and proper implementation of diagnostics preceding conservation engineering activities. The article discusses interdisciplinary diagnostics developed by the author, an original method for assessing the revitalization capability of a historical building, which analyzes non-technical issues, including those relevant to conservation, in addition to the technical aspects of assessing the technical condition of a building. Based on engineering practice, problems and technical issues that often occur in the conservation process of wooden buildings, as well as in the broader process of their revitalization, are presented. They concern various engineering activities that must be implemented in this process according to the principles discussed.

Historic wooden architecture typology in Tobolsk late in the 19th and early 20th centuries

The article is devoted to the architecture typology of historical wooden buildings in cities and rural settlements of the Tobolsk province. The research results can be used for studying related topics in the field of restoration and reconstruction of historical and architectural heritage. The research materials were iconographic data, books, articles and dissertations on the topic. Approaches include the field surveys, measurements and photographs of objects. As a result, the analytical material allows identifying the main types of wooden residential buildings late in the 19th and early 20th centuries in terms of their constructive and space-planning solutions. Definitions are given to the objects at issue, examples of the architectural typology of wooden historical buildings in the Tobolsk province late in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

The color change analysis of historic wooden remains after fire-suppression by fluorinated chemical gases

Many wooden Chinese historic buildings are destroyed due to the ravages of frequent fire disasters. The fire risk of historic buildings are highly enlarged since a long-time weathered wooden structures in the natural environment. The clean fire-extinguishing technology using fluorinated chemical gases to put out a historic building fire rapidly at the initial stage is highly recommended and widely used. However, the gaseous hydrogen fluoride (HF) yielded during the fire suppression process could be a potential method to result in secondary damage due to its corrosiveness. Nowadays, experiments were employed to clarify the effect of fire suppression on the surface of historic wooden buildings. Five traditional fluorinated chemical gases, H-37, FK-5-1-12, H-1323, H-2402, and H-1301, are used to suppress a fixed flame. The wooden samples, including a Dao Talisman board, a painting paper, and wooden chips, are placed in a chamber. Wooden chips consist of traditional and weathered samples (acting as the Chinese historic buildings). The concentration of gaseous products yielded from fire suppression are monitored by a gas-FTIR from ABB, and the surface analysis is conducted by a Quanta FEG SEM–EDX from FEI. It is observed that flame enhancement happens at the early stage of fire suppression and varies with fire agents. The amount of F-deposited on the wooden surface is positively correlated with a total amount of gaseous HF. The color change mechanism of the wooden surface is comprehensive, although the amount of HF is a leading factor. The influence of HF on color change depends on the amount of both gaseous H2O and HF. It is concluded that the value of L* of the traditional chip is much easier to be reduced comparing with weathered samples with the same wood grain. The reduction of {mathrm{b}}^{*} value of weathered samples is much larger than the traditional ones. It suggests the weathered chips show a color shift toward blue because of fire suppression. The present study hopes to provide a basic acknowledgment for the comprehensive understanding of secondary damage caused by fire suppression.

Rize- Fırtına Vadisindeki Tarihi Ahşap Yapılardaki Kimyasal Değişimlerin Tespiti

Studies conducted to determine the factors that cause damage in historical wooden buildings in our country are quite limited. Rize-Fırtına Valley, with a climate index higher than 65, is one of the regions with the highest rainfall in our country. The risk of decay in historical wooden buildings in this region due to the high climate index is quite high. As a result of this situation, the resistance properties of wood are negatively affected. Within the scope of the research, samples were taken from wooden mansions that are at least 150 years old in the region. Cellulose, lignin, and hemicellulose contents were determined in order to detect chemical changes occurring in the chemical structures of the wood samples. Thanks to the obtained results from this study, intervention/restoration methods may be suggested for the protection and sustainability of wooden materials in historical buildings.

Evolution of approaches to wooden architecture preservation

The article analyzes the conservation of wooden architecture on the example of wooden temples of Zaonezhie. In the 21st century, with numerous losses in wooden churches, the problem of finding an effective approach to preserving the fragile wooden heritage of Russia becomes more and more relevant.The aim of this work is to identify approaches to preservation of wooden architecture, consider the positive and negative sides of the identified approaches in terms of preservation of the architectural heritage of the 19th, 20th, and 21st centuries.Theoretical and practical experience of preservation of wooden architecture in these centuries is studied and summarized in relation to wooden temples of Zaonezhie. A comparative analysis of preservation approaches is carried out. The SWOT analysis provides an objective assessment of positive and negative factors of preserving the wooden church in the region, and opportunities and threats to this monument.The paper identifies and classifies approaches to preservation of wooden monuments, the Church of Transfiguration of the Lord of Kizhi pogost and temples of Zaonezhie, in particular.The proposed classification of approaches makes it possible to objectively assess the need for their use in preserving the wooden architecture in each specific situation. The paper considers the regional factors, which can contribute to the introduction of wooden temples in the cultural turnover. The research results can be updated on historical wooden buildings, taking into account their individual characteristics.

Evaluation of Salt-Induced Damage to Aged Wood of Historical Wooden Buildings.

Salt is a common cause of damage to building materials used in cultural and historical buildings. The damage to aged wood in historical wooden buildings has not been extensively studied, resulting in the need for a more detailed analysis. In this work, Yingxian Wooden Pagoda, a typical historical wooden structure, was taken as the research object. Multichemical analyses were conducted to evaluate and understand the salt-induced damage to the aged wood using a scanning electron microscope equipped with an energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer, sulphur K-edge X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy, X-ray fluorescence spectroscopy, X-ray powder diffraction, and attenuated total reflectance fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy. The results showed the presence of invasive salt crystallisations and ions in the aged samples. The source of these invasive elements was deduced by identifying the type, amount, and valency of the elements; they were found to be derived from environmental factors such as acid rain and atmospheric pollutant. The unique damage mechanism and route induced by salt in historical buildings made of wood were summarised; the damage was attributed to the accumulation of sulphate salt causing hydrolysis of the carbohydrates and salt crystallisation resulting in mechanical damage. This interdisciplinary study is significant for decision making in studies related to the preservation and evaluation of historical wooden buildings.

An experimental study on sustainability of historical wooden buildings exposed to open sea streams

An experimental study on sustainability of historical wooden buildings exposed to open sea streams

РУКОВОДЯЩИЕ ПРИНЦИПЫ СОХРАНЕНИЯ ЦЕРКВИ ПРЕОБРАЖЕНИЯ ГОСПОДНЯ КИЖСКОГО ПОГОСТА, ОБЪЕКТА ВСЕМИРНОГО НАСЛЕДИЯ ЮНЕСКО

The restoration of wooden churches in the north of Russia is an important part of preserving the cultural heritage. State legislation regulates this activity. The subjects of this process pay attention to Russian laws, leaving international norms behind. Simultaneously, the international principles of preservation of historical wooden buildings ratified by Russia determine the areas of activity and offer criteria for evaluating decisions at different stages of activity. The regulatory document lacks a clear structuring of principles. The analysis and systematization of principles regarding wooden architecture, as more vulnerable objects, are presented in the article. The principles are developed taking into account various conservation processes: before, during restoration and after restoration. The article focuses on after restoration activities, as an important component of the conservation process, which should be developed at the design stage. An analysis of compliance with the principles and solutions of conservation issues is considered on the example of the Church of Transfiguration of the Lord in Kizhi. Its restoration is supervised by international experts from ICOMOS UNESCO and the rigorous implementation of international principles and recommendations.

Experimental and computational study on mechanical behaviour of carpentry corner log joints

This work concerns experimental and numerical research on carpentry joints used in historic wooden buildings in southeastern Poland and western Ukraine. These structures are mainly sacred buildings, and the types of corner log joints characteristic of this region are primarily saddle-notch and dovetail joints; thus, these two types of joints were analysed in this study.The modelling of historic timber structures is a complex issue, so the following steps are necessary to obtain accurate solutions: verification, validation and uncertainty quantification. The first and third steps were performed in a previous study, so the current research aimed to validate the numerical models and perform simulations of carpentry joints. Herein, the authors created finite element models of two types of joints and subsequently analysed the mechanical behaviour of these joints.Due to issues concerning model validation, the authors designed a testing stand for corner joints, which formed a part of a biaxial testing machine. The joints were subjected to horizontal loads (deformations), which may cause damage to the connection. Thus, special parts were designed for the stand, which made it possible to fix the joint and prevented eccentric forces that could possibly damage the machine during testing.The authors presented the differences and similarities in the behaviour of both types of joints, emphasizing the corresponding advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the authors determined which type of joint was the most susceptible to damage and what elements failed first.This paper also showed the complexity of modelling timber structures and the accuracy of the proposed numerical models for both types of joints through comparisons of the numerical and experimental results. This work primary addressed the problems in accurately reflecting material, load and boundary conditions in numerical modelling of tested carpentry corner log joints.

TO THE PROBLEM OF PRESERVATION AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE HISTORICAL AND ARCHITECTURAL SPACE OF THE STREETS OF SLAVYANSKAYA, KOROLENKO, NOVAYAIN N. NOVGOROD

The article deals with the actual problem of complex preservation of historic wooden buildings in the context of changing and developing urban space. The realized experience of preservation of wooden buildings in large cities of Russia is given. The historical and cultural characteristics of the architectural space of one of the valuable fragments of the historical environment of Nizhny Novgorod - the area of Korolenko, Novaya, Slavyanskaya and Studenaya streets are given. The prospects of its development as an urban public space are analyzed. There is a change in attitude towards the preservation of the considered fragment of development and the wooden urban architecture as a whole at the professional, social and political levels in recent decades and now.

Determination of Mechanical Properties of Aged Wood Material Using Vickers Microhardness Test

Aim of study: In this study, it was aimed to determine the changes under the influence of time of the age wood obtained from the historical wooden buildings.Area of study: The aged wood (AW) and new wood (NW) were used in experimental analysis. Wood samples were Pinus sylvestris L. The aged wood was over 50 years old and is derived from the historical wooden buildings in Kastamonu, Turkey.Material and Methods: The aged and new wood samples were prepared to compare the effect of time. The mechanical properties, crystallinity and microstructure of new and aged wood were investigated by using Vickers microhardness tester, XRD and SEM, respectively. The change in the mechanical and structural properties of the aged and new wood material was determined.Main results: The microhardness values depended on the applied load and increased with increasing the applied load. Meyer's law, Proportional Sample Resistance, Elastic/Plastic Deformation, Hays-Kendall Approach and Indentation-Induced Cracking models were analyzed for investigation of load independent microhardness values. As a result, IIC model was the most successful model.Research highlights: It is very important to know the changes that wood has suffered in time in order to conservation of wooden cultural heritage objects and reuse of aged wood.Keywords: Aged wood, new wood, historical construction, cultural heritage,