Heritage Conservation Research Articles

The modern house: conservation and (re)use through the narrative approach

PurposeThis paper acknowledges the limitations of conventional heritage conservation, where the reuse of iconic modern houses as museums or exhibits often sacrifices their original residential function. We explore four aspects of the narrative approach – significance, reversibility, expandability and craftsmanship – to assess its potential for preserving and allowing change over time in the modern house.Design/methodology/approachFour iconic modern houses are analysed in this study: Villa Tugendhat-Brno frozen as a museum house, Chabot Museum-Rotterdam refunctioned as an art museum, Haus Schminke-Löbau used as a guest house and Maison Guiette-Antwerpen still in use. Employing aspects of the narrative approach (Walter, 2020a, b), the analysis evaluates recent heritage management practices in preserving the building’s multifaceted history and associated perspectives.FindingsThe narrative approach in heritage conservation values the evolving significance of cultural heritage by recognising different perspectives and preserving the traces of past changes. It promotes sustainability by enabling adaptive reuse while preserving historical integrity by respecting past and future heritage. Despite its obvious weaknesses, such as potential subjectivity, the dilution of valuations and the loss of historic fabric, it particularly responds to the ephemeral nature and challenges of modernity.Originality/valueThe cross-case analysis of practical conservation approaches, encompassing varied strategies for conservation and adaptive reuse, offers valuable insights for theorizing the significance of modernist architecture for both the present and future.

Rural Settlement Dynamics in a Rapidly Urbanizing Landscape: Insights from Satellite Remote Sensing and Archaeological Field Surveys in Zanzibar, Tanzania

ABSTRACT In Africa, rapid urbanization covers archaeological sites and limits the utility of traditional archaeological field survey methods. This is not only a crisis for archaeological heritage conservation, but it also distinctly impacts anthropological understandings of African urban trajectories since much evidence for precolonial urbanism lies within areas of rapid expansion. However, high-resolution multitemporal satellite data may facilitate reconstructions of urban growth in African cities, enabling archaeological surveys to target undeveloped areas for prospection within the interstices of modern urban development. This paper describes an application of satellite remote sensing for archaeological prospection within the rapidly urbanizing hinterland of Zanzibar Stone Town, a UNESCO World Heritage site. Survey results reveal settlement trajectories around the city over the last millennium, drawing attention to the role of rural agricultural land as a factor in the emergence of precolonial urbanism and the continued significance of rural places as urbanization progressed into the Colonial era.

Revitalizing Heritage: The Role of Urban Morphology in Creating Public Value in China’s Historic Districts

In the context of historical districts becoming a key to the urban transformation and high-quality development of Chinese cities, this paper investigates the regeneration of historic environments in China, emphasizing the creation of public value through urban morphology. By analyzing five distinct case studies—Chengdu KuanZhai Alley, Shanghai TianZiFang Alley, Guangzhou EnNing Road, Taiyuan ZhongLou Street, and Beijing NanLuoGu Alley—this study explores the relationship between urban form and public value creation from 2000 to 2020. The research posits that the spatial attribute of “public nature” is central to the regeneration process, highlighting the importance of understanding how urban spaces can foster community engagement and social interaction. An evaluation system is constructed to assess the regeneration of historic areas based on spatial “publicness” and people’s perceptions, addressing the need for a more nuanced approach to urban planning. The findings reveal that effective urban regeneration not only preserves historical significance but also enhances the quality of public spaces, thereby contributing to social equity and cultural integrity. This study aims to provide valuable insights for urban planners and policymakers, advocating for a public value-oriented approach to the renewal of historic districts that balances economic development with the preservation of cultural heritage. The integration of public value concepts into heritage management is crucial for creating vibrant urban environments that resonate with community needs and aspirations.

Cultural Preservation and Identity: Exploring Strategies for Preserving Cultural Identity among Refugees, Migrants and Minority Communities While Promoting Integration and Social Cohesion

Abstract: The preservation of cultural identity among refugees, migrants and minority communities poses a serious challenge in the context of increasing global travel. This essay examines several tactics meant to support social cohesiveness and integration within host nations while still protecting cultural identity. This research identifies critical elements that support the effective preservation of cultural heritage by an extensive analysis of the body of existing literature. The study highlights the value of inclusive policies, community-driven projects, and educational programs in promoting a sense of respect and belonging across various communities. It also emphasizes how important intercultural communication and cooperation are to reducing cultural differences and promoting social harmony. This study offers a sound understanding of how cultural integration and preservation can coexist, ultimately leading to more inclusive and cohesive societies, by looking at successful models and potential roadblocks. Policymakers, social workers, educators, and community leaders who are dedicated to promoting social integration and cultural variety in a global community that is becoming more interconnected will find great value in these findings.

Research on the design and image perception of cultural landscapes based on digital roaming technology

AbstractThe preservation and advancement of cultural heritage continue to present significant challenges, arising from conflicting objectives, concepts, methodologies, and limited resources. Image perception not only serves as an observational tool for cultural heritage but also as a research method to uncover deeper meanings and implications. To explore the complex dynamics of cultural heritage and address the risks of its deterioration, this study employed virtual engine software (Unity 2019) to create digital landscapes for immersive exploration. An image perception evaluation framework was established through field surveys and behavioral synthesis experiments across five key areas, including ancient tree ecosystems and architectural sites. Our findings revealed that participants showed the greatest interest in the ancient tree ecological area, indicating a strong attachment to historical continuity and natural progression. Heart rate variability (HRV) analysis further demonstrated that participants experienced positive emotional responses, suggesting that well-designed cultural landscapes can enhance mental well-being and uplift mood. Additionally, participants expressed a strong willingness to discuss the ancient tree eco-region, with image perception playing a crucial role in motivating information sharing and driving conservation efforts. This study introduces an innovative model—Design Practice, Immersive Experience, and Image Perception Evaluation—which offers a new perspective for the preservation and enhancement of cultural heritage sites.

The Potential of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) In Enhancing Malaysia's Arts and Cultural Heritage Preservation

This study investigates the transformative potential of Non-Fungible Tokens (NFTs) in revolutionizing the marketing of artworks by Malaysian visual artists, with a particular focus on promoting cultural heritage. NFTs, as digital assets secured by blockchain technology, offer artists innovative methods to monetize their creations while preserving authenticity and provenance. Despite their growing popularity, Malaysian artists face challenges such as limited knowledge and skepticism regarding the effective use of NFT technology. This research aims to identify strategies and best practices for incorporating NFTs into digital art marketing, particularly in the context of cultural heritage preservation. Through a combination of content analysis and semi-structured interviews with five experts, this study applies the soft laddering technique to explore the perceived benefits and challenges of NFTs. The findings highlight the significant potential of NFTs to enhance Malaysian artists' access to global markets and strengthen the preservation of cultural heritage. The study underscores the need for improved technological literacy and NFT utilization among Malaysian artists to maximize their presence and competitiveness in the evolving digital art marketplace.

Collision of tradition and visual perception: aesthetic evaluation and conservation intent in adapting traditional Chinese gates within architectural heritage

ABSTRACT The sustainable conservation of architectural heritage has attracted significant attention, especially with the rapid development of heritage tourism. Adaptation is a compromise to allow heritage to meet modern development demands; however, unregulated adaptations pose significant risks to sustainable conservation. This study involved 60 participants in a quasi-experimental investigation, using eye-tracking technology combined with evaluation questionnaires. The aim was to explore how material, ornament, and generational age differences impact aesthetic evaluation, visual attention, and conservation intention toward traditional Chinese architectural gates. The results show a general preference for traditional materials (wood) and intricate ornament (Ice Crack), with participants displaying a stronger conservation intention toward these elements. Notably, generational differences were evident, with older participants showing longer visual engagement with architectural heritage design elements. This study extends aesthetic response theory into the heritage domain, emphasizing material authenticity and design complexity in shaping conservation attitudes. It offers valuable insights for heritage adaptation strategies, emphasizing the need to balance historical authenticity with aesthetic appeal to enhance public engagement.

Navigating the challenges of over-tourism: comparative insights and solutions from Petra and Karnak

ABSTRACT This study examines the impacts of excessive tourism on two distinct UNESCO World Heritage Sites: Petra in Jordan and the Karnak Temples in Egypt. These sites were selected for their unique archaeological value and the specific, contrasting challenges they face due to their geographical locations, cultural significance, and differing visitor management contexts. By employing qualitative methods, such as interviews, field observations, and document analysis, the research investigates the environmental, structural, social, and cultural consequences of over-tourism at both sites. The findings reveal that, despite their differences, Petra and Karnak share common issues, including environmental degradation, structural damage, social inequality, and cultural erosion, exacerbated by overcrowding, irresponsible tourist behavior, and inadequate management practices. The study highlights the need for targeted and context-specific solutions, such as improved crowd management, eco-friendly transportation, comprehensive waste management, and stronger community involvement in conservation efforts. By adopting these integrated and sustainable approaches, stakeholders can better mitigate the adverse impacts of tourism and preserve the historical and cultural integrity of these sites. This research provides a valuable contribution to the discourse on sustainable tourism management by offering practical, site-specific insights for heritage preservation.

Cultural geography meets architectural typology: a mixed-methods study of traditional Bayu dwellings in Southwestern China

ABSTRACT Traditional Bayu dwellings in China’s mountainous regions embody a rich yet underexplored architectural heritage, characterized by unique cultural and regional attributes. This study addresses the gap by investigating the architectural typologies, spatial distribution, and cultural influences of these dwellings. Employing a mixed-methods approach within the framework of cultural geography, the research integrates qualitative and quantitative methodologies. Data collection was conducted in three phases: (1) field surveys and documentation of 67 heritage-listed dwellings and 164 traditional villages; (2) collection of geographic data using GIS tools, including Digital Elevation Model (DEM) analysis; and (3) comprehensive literature review of historical and cultural records. Data analysis utilized statistical methods, including second-order cluster analysis, and spatial analysis with ArcGIS. The findings identify four primary dwelling types and delineate four architectural cultural zones shaped by geographical segregation, economic exchanges, and ethnic interactions. This study contributes to a broader understanding of the architectural culture and regional characteristics of the Bayu region, offering valuable insights for cultural heritage preservation and informing sustainable development strategies.

Monitoring soil salinization and waterlogging in the northeastern Nile Delta linked to shallow saline groundwater and irrigation water quality.

Soil salinization and waterlogging are critical environmental issues affecting agricultural productivity and cultural heritage preservation, particularly in arid regions. This study investigated soil degradation processes in the archaeologically and agriculturally significant northeastern Nile Delta of Egypt. The objective was to assess the severity of soil degradation and identify key drivers related to water resources and soil characteristics to aid in the development of management strategies. The research employed a multi-faceted approach, including hydrochemical analyses (of groundwater, irrigation water, and soil), water quality indices calculations, statistical analyses, and satellite data. The results revealed high levels of soil salinization in the northern and central areas, with 64% of soil samples classified as strongly and very strongly saline. Soil chemistry indicated salinization sources linked to sodium chloride dominance. Satellite data from Sentinel-2 images and SRTM digital elevation data showed widespread severe waterlogging in the northern lowlands. The Irrigation Water Quality Index (IWQI) values indicated that 87.5% of irrigation water samples posed severe restrictions due to high salinity and sodium hazards, which were mismatched with the low soil permeability observed in 81% of the collected samples exhibiting clay texture and covering most of the study area. Furthermore, shallow groundwater at depths of 0.5-3m with high salinity was detected, where total dissolved solids exceeded 20,000mg/L, and Na-Cl water types prevailed, indicating saltwater intrusion. A strong positive correlation (r > 0.83) was found between shallow saline groundwater and soil salinity. The combination of poor irrigation water quality, shallow saline groundwater tables, and low-permeability soils created a synergistic effect that severely compromised soil health and agricultural productivity. It also posed severe risks to the structural integrity of archaeological sites and buried artifacts through accelerated physical and chemical weathering processes. This necessitates an urgent mitigation strategy to combat soil degradation in this critical area.

Understanding community perspective on the heritage of locality: memory map methodology

PurposeCommunity involvement in heritage preservation requires appropriate approaches. Sanciai (in Lithuanian: Šanciai) historic district in Kaunas (Lithuania) has long-lasting military and industrial heritage, valuable urban structure and connections to the natural frame of the city. Sanciai residents’ willingness to participate in heritage preservation and urban planning prompted the aim of this research – to develop, test and present the mapping methodology, that would be applicable in the process of community involvement into heritage identification, preservation, interpretation and creation process.Design/methodology/approachThe methods of research included analysis of literature and theoretical research, development and testing of the methodology for the community involvement in heritage identification, preservation, interpretation and creation process. The workshop methodology and interactive online map are presented in this research. The memory map methodology developed and presented in this research includes the elements of mental mapping, design thinking and citizen science.FindingsThe methodology was tested in spring of 2021 in two-day online workshops with the students of pro-gymnasium located in Sanciai. Workshop participants together with workshop coordinator and moderators created different layers of the mental map, collected stories from the members of community and gathered the data for online interactive Sanciai memory map. The evaluation of the methodology and workshop results allowed concluding that memory map methodology is a functioning participant, community and research-oriented approach that can be applied in diverse heritage and community related circumstances.Originality/valueThe originality of the research is determined by the synergistic nature of developed memory map methodology which complements traditional mental mapping with creative hands-on techniques, empathy-oriented tasks and interactive online tool. Moreover, the research reveals the importance of local-global connections in urban studies as active local community became the stimulus for memory map methodology. The two-fold aim of the methodology – community cohesion and empowerment as well as research data collection – contributes to the originality of the research as well.

Ethnomathematics: Learning Geometric Transformation Through the Formation of Lagosi Motif

The Lagosi motif, a prominent design in the traditional fabric of the Wajo district, is well-known but increasingly rare among local weavers. This motif, drawing inspiration from natural elements such as flowers and stems, holds significant philosophical and cultural meaning for the Wajo people, serving as a key element of their endangered cultural heritage. Despite its cultural importance, the motif has been minimally explored in the context of ethnomathematics. Consequently, this study investigates the mathematical concepts inherent in the design of Lagosi motifs, aiming to utilize them as educational tools for students and to support cultural preservation efforts. Employing a qualitative research methodology with an ethnographic approach, data were collected through observations, interviews, and documentation. The validity and reliability of the data were ensured through triangulation and confirmability. The study reveals that geometric transformations, specifically translation and reflection, play a central role in the creation of Lagosi motifs. These findings highlight the natural emergence of mathematical concepts within local cultural practices, offering potential for their integration into contextualized mathematics education. Furthermore, the results aim to instill a sense of cultural pride in students, thereby contributing to the preservation of Wajo's cultural heritage. The study also underscores the opportunity to leverage Lagosi motifs as culturally relevant educational tools and to foster interdisciplinary collaboration between mathematics and cultural studies.

Building Home in Exile: The Role of Intangible Cultural Heritage, Crafts, and Material Culture Among Resettled Syrians in Liverpool, UK

Since the onset of the Syrian conflict in 2011, millions of Syrians have sought refuge globally, with thousands resettling in the UK. Despite their displacement, Syrians have brought with them a rich array of inherited knowledge and traditions, collectively known as intangible cultural heritage (ICH). The construction of domestic spaces by these settlers and their struggle to feel at home have emerged as important topics in migration studies, particularly when housing issues are considered as a critical aspect of their transcultural social engagement and the evolving boundaries of their identity and belonging. However, the role of ICH, along with the related crafts and movable objects, in the home-making practices of forced migrants remains under-researched. This gap is especially significant given that the UK recently ratified the 2003 UNESCO Convention on the safeguarding of ICH after a decade-long delay. Through in-depth semi-structured interviews conducted in the interviewees’ native Arabic within their home environments and supported by an observational study, this research explores how resettled Syrians in Liverpool integrate traditional ICH practices into their new homes, focusing on the dynamic relationship between the intangible and built heritage. By examining how intangible knowledge and movable objects interplay in creating a ‘Syrian home’, this study contributes to discussions on community engagement and the role of memory in conservation. The findings underscore the importance of ICH in maintaining cultural continuity and identity in the diaspora, providing insights into the inclusive heritage conservation practices in migrant contexts. This research highlights two key insights: first, the essential role that ICH, along with the associated crafts and movable objects, plays in constructing new homes in the diaspora, particularly in how these items serve as the carriers of cultural identity and continuity; and second, the symbolic significance of Syrian homes, especially their interior designs and decorations, as reflections of a blend of sociocultural practices that Syrians are committed to preserving.

Assessment of the impact of the Syrian conflict on archaeological sites in the Daraa region

To date, the attention of both local and global cultural heritage preservation initiatives in Daraa Province, southern Syria, have focused on the well-known Bosra World Heritage site. A comprehensive investigation of damage to Daraa’s many other archaeological sites, poorly studied in comparison to other parts of Syria, has until now, not been undertaken. This study, for the first time, attempts to remedy this, by detailing 1632 instances of damage across 196 archaeological sites surveyed using freely available high-resolution satellite images captured between 2004 and 2022. A key element of this dataset is that it indicates that while the types of damage to heritage sites identified are similar to those that have been documented elsewhere in Syria, the temporal and spatial patterning of this damage can be related to specific local conditions and events. This underscores the need for large-scale studies undertaken using remote sensing, to be grounded within an understanding of local circumstances, to maximize their information value.

Evaluating the stability of architectural heritage from the perspective of InSAR: a practical study on Jianchuan Ancient Town

AbstractThe increase in human activities and natural degradation often leads to tilting, collapsing, and other forms of deterioration in architectural heritage, posing significant threats to its safety. Therefore, timely detection of abnormal deformation signals in buildings is essential for the protection of architectural heritage. Spaceborne synthetic aperture radar interferometry (InSAR) can detect slight displacements over large areas. However, relying solely on annual mean velocity maps derived from InSAR may not accurately assess the stability of ancient buildings. In this study, we developed a framework that evaluates the stability of individual buildings by integrating the InSAR displacements with building footprints. Vertical and rotational deformations, along with the temporal evolution of these deformations, are combined to generate the results for building stability assessment. We used 74 TerraSAR-X images captured from August 2017 to November 2019 to evaluate the stability of Jianchuan Ancient Town, a renowned National Historical and Cultural City in China. The displacement result suggests that the majority of Jianchuan Ancient Town remains stable, with over 93% of coherent points (CTs) displaying displacement velocities ranging from −5 to 5 mm/yr. Out of the 1,891 buildings in Jianchuan Ancient Town, 1404 are considered stable, 352 are of moderate stability, and 12 are deemed unstable. This study showed the potential of InSAR applications in assessing the stability of architectural heritages, emphasizing its crucial role in heritage preservation and management.

Multi-Objective Optimization Design of Traditional Soil Dwelling Renovation Based on Analytic Hierarchy Process—Quality Function Deployment—Non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm II: Case Study in Tuyugou Village in Turpan, Xinjiang

As the socio-economic landscape expands and tourism flourishes, the traditional earthen dwellings of Tuyugou Village, Turpan, Xinjiang, face significant challenges, including low energy efficiency and suboptimal living comfort, necessitating data-driven and scientifically robust renovation strategies. Existing renovation methods, however, often lack empirical support and rely heavily on the subjective judgments of architects, thus hindering the effective preservation and transmission of cultural heritage. This research addresses the renovation of these traditional dwellings by employing the AHP method to systematically evaluate user requirements, with input from diverse stakeholders, including homeowners, tourists, experts, and government authorities. The study then applies the QFD method to construct the House of Quality, translating user needs into specific design attributes; this is followed by a comprehensive quantitative analysis for optimization. A novel multi-objective optimization model (MOP) is introduced, with materials as the central focus, addressing key aspects of engineering, culture, and energy conservation. The NSGA-II algorithm is utilized to generate optimal Pareto solutions, which are then further refined using the entropy-weighted VIKOR method. Among the ten pre-selected renovation solutions, the sixth design plan was identified as the optimal choice, excelling in cost control, cultural integration, and energy performance. Specifically, it achieved a unit construction cost of RMB 340.566/m2, a cultural adaptability score of 1.5364, and an energy cost of RMB 352.793/kWh, thereby demonstrating an effective balance between traditional architectural elements and modern requirements. The objective decision making enabled by the VIKOR method successfully balances cultural preservation with contemporary needs, enhancing both living standards and tourism appeal. This study offers innovative and empirically grounded renovation strategies for traditional dwellings in arid and semi-arid climates, providing a framework that effectively balances cultural preservation and modernization.

Project-based Learning in a Geomatics Bachelor Program: A Digital Heritage Preservation Project

Abstract. Like in most bachelor engineering programs, the education of geomatics students typically begins with an extensive theoretical introduction covering fundamental subjects. The general objective of the bachelor program is to cultivate geomatics engineers with robust hands-on knowledge. Nevertheless, the progression to a stage where students can independently engage in exercises with minimal supervision is a long process. Although field work-based practices are dominant in this field, they often entail activities limited to testing, experimenting, and the application of basic theories. While this approach is efficient in imparting routine knowledge, it may lead to the fragmentation of acquired knowledge, thereby lacking a comprehensive understanding of the broader significance and context. Students often encounter more complex challenges when commencing work on their bachelor thesis, leading to a steep learning curve within a constrained timeframe. This late exposure to real-world tasks can be a limiting factor, hindering a smoother transition from education to professional work. This paper provides a case study of project-based learning (PjBL) within a geomatics bachelor program. Specifically, it discusses a digital heritage preservation project where students documented an old Norwegian log house throughout the autumn semester of 2023. The outcomes of this learning approach are analyzed with the help of the key features of the PjBL methodology, focusing on students' learning outcomes and their assessment measures.

Design and Development of Qingyang Sachet for Current Lifestyle

Background and Aims: China's General Administration of Quality Supervision, Inspection, and Quarantine (AQSIQ) Wen (No. 39 of 2014) states that Qingyang Sachets is a long-established embroidery treasure. It is handmade with fresh and elegant spices and colorful silk threads, possessing a unique mood. With rich shapes and exquisite designs, Qingyang Sachets pray for good luck to avoid evil, pray for good health to wish for longevity, and hold the wishes of love and prosperity, reflecting all kinds of beautiful visions of life. As one of China's national intangible cultural heritages, it is an important carrier of China's traditional folk culture and has rich historical and cultural significance. However, with the changes of the times and people's lifestyles, the traditional Qingyang Sachets can no longer fully meet the needs of modern people. The purpose of this study is to design new styles and functions of the Qingyang Sachets for Generation Y and Generation Z. The first step of this study is to analyze the text and questionnaires. Methodology: The study starts with text analysis and a questionnaire survey. Classification and purposive sampling of Qingyang Sachets were carried out, traditional and modern Qingyang Sachets were compared and analyzed, and descriptive statistics and content analysis techniques were used for data collection and quantitative and qualitative research. We collected 306 questionnaires and optimized the new design scheme of Qingyang Sachets with the results of the questionnaires. Results: The new program adheres to the principle of "keeping the right and innovation", and strives to enhance the attractiveness and competitiveness of Qingyang Sachets in the market, and to protect and inherit the non-heritage culture. This study also provides a theoretical basis for the product design literature of Qingyang Sachets and practical insights for designers to meet the needs of young consumers. Conclusion: The new program intends to provide young consumers with useful insights and a theoretical foundation for product design, all while enhancing Qingyang Sachets' market attractiveness, competitiveness, and heritage preservation.

Cultural Heritage at Risk in World Conflicts: Digital Tools’ Contribution to Its Preservation

Cultural heritage is, today, particularly exposed to the devastation resulting from natural phenomena, but it is even more exposed to the destruction caused by man-made ones. Consequently, it is critical to adopt suitable and concrete provisions for its preservation and conservation. The conflict that has been raging in Ukraine since February 2022 has spotlighted problems related to cultural heritage, which is increasingly considered a military target. Digital transformation and technologies integrated with legal tools can contribute to making the system of protection and recovery of cultural assets more effective and efficient by redefining methodologies to safeguard and interact with them. This paper proposes a framework for integrating legal and digital tools that are functional for the preservation, conservation, and enhancement of cultural heritage. To define it, on the one hand, the legal instruments in force were analysed, and on the other, a literature review on the digital technologies currently available was carried out. The role of digital transformation in the cultural sphere was also examined, especially in light of Ukraine’s experience with the application of digital technologies to protect and recover cultural heritage during the current conflict.

“We Hold Culture in Our Hearts”: A Phenomenological Study of Hispanic/Latina Homeschool Experiences

ABSTRACT Although one of the fastest-growing homeschool subgroups, there are no empirical studies specifically considering Hispanic/Latino/a/x/e homeschool families. This study asks Hispanic and Latina parents to describe what homeschooling means to them. Using phenomenology, intersectionality, and community cultural wealth, we interviewed 18 mothers across the nation. We find that preservation or reclamation of cultural heritage is the most meaningful result of the decision to homeschool. Specific aspects of culture found are family cohesion, familial language, and living the values of a strong work ethic and the need to be resourceful. Implications for policy, practice, and research are discussed.