Hippocratic Writings Research Articles

Girolamo Cardano’s Meteorological Predictions: Hippocratism, Weather Signs, Winds, and the Limits of Astrology

AbstractThe subject of meteorology was central to Girolamo Cardano’s thought. It held together his encyclopedism by tying the celestial realm to the sublunary world and human action. Meteorology, for Cardano, links abstract knowledge to the practical and operative. While many of his Aristotelian predecessors understood weather prediction as distinct from meteorology as a natural philosophical field, Cardano’s profound interest in conjectural arts and probabilistic reasoning led him to tie causal explanations to methods of forecasting future conditions of the air and their effects on humans, especially regarding health and disease. While it might be expected that Cardano would have emphasized astrological tools for weather forecasting, instead he went in a different direction, namely, embracing the ancient tradition of weather signs and revising Aristotelian theories of winds. At the end of his career, which he mostly spent writing commentaries on Hippocratic writings, he integrated his understanding of weather signs with Hippocratic rules of prognosis, revising traditional understandings of the causes of winds.

Blood and the Awareness of Perception. From Early Greek Thought to Plato’sTimaeus

AbstractIn this paper I first address what I consider a central issue in the account of perception in Plato’sTimaeus, namely, how thepathematapass through the body to reach the soul, and thus becomeaistheseis. My point in Section 1 is that in tackling this issue Plato aims to provide a firm physiological basis to the notion of perception that starts to emerge in theTheaetetusand thePhilebusand is crucial to the late development of his theory of cognition. In the ensuing section I try to put the account of perception in theTimaeusinto a historical perspective, aiming to highlight two points: a) Plato’s description of the way in which sensible impressions “travel” inside the body and interact with its parts and other constituents is largely indebted to previous theories, such as those we find, for example, in Empedocles and a few Hippocratic writers; b) The leading role in this story (where internal air plays a significant supporting role) is played by blood flowing through the vascular system and thus performing a crucial cognitive function. Moreover, emphasizing the role of blood as well as analyzing the elaborate way in which perceptions are transmitted through the body to the soul proves vital to appreciate (in Section 3) the cognitive status of the lower parts of the soul (which are more involved in perception) and their relation to reason. Overall, the paper adds further elements to our understanding of Plato’s embodied approach to cognition.I had already written (and submitted) this article when Johansen (2021) was published. The latter’s approach to the role of blood in Plato’s physiology of knowledge in theTimaeusconverges in part with mine (as I was pleased to find out), partly due to our overlapping sources and bibliography.

MEDICAL SCIENCE LANGUAGES ACROSS HUMAN HISTORY

The Edwin Smith Papyrus is written in ancient Egyptian language around 1,600 BC. The earliest foundations of Ayurveda medicine is written in Sanskrit dating from about 600 BC. The foundational text of Chinese medicine is the Huangdi neijing, (Yellow Emperor’s Inner Canon), written 5th century to 3rd century BC. The oldest written sources of western medicine are the Hippocratic writings from the 5th and 4th centuries BC written in Greek. During the Middle Ages (800–1,500 AD), Arabic was the language of medicine in most parts of the world. Scholars from different parts of the world were gathered in ‘Bait ul Hikma’ at Baghdad. They translated scientific works from Greek, Syriac, Pahlavi, and Sanskrit into Arabic. After Renaissance (14th AD), in Europe, both Greek and Arabic works were translated into Latin. Latin supplanted Greek as the preeminent medical language and remained so until the early 1800s. Then followed the era of the national medical languages. Since the 1950s, English has been the principal language of the medical profession. The global language of medicine in the 21st century is English. Pak J Physiol 2022;18(1):1?2

Post-traumatic management of condylar fracture complications

Management of issues following condylar fracture is dependent on the effect on joint function and pain and an assessment of the degree of deformity. The following article aims to guide the reader in the assessment of these issues and the preservation of as much as is normal as possible. “First do no harm” is a phrase coined from the writings of Hippocrates, the Greek philosopher and physician. The cases described illustrate examples of where other clinicians have advised joint replacement, but where the author has used orthognathic or less invasive techniques to preserve existing tissues and joint function and to restore facial balance. They serve as a reminder that the complete TMJ surgeon needs a good orthognathic knowledge and expertise.

Spontaneous rupture of liver abscess with biliary communication presenting as a lumbar mass

Pyogenic liver abscess was first reported in the writings of Hippocrates, which was based on the type of fluid recovered from the abscess related to a high mortality rate ranging between 15% and 19% at that time. However in 1938, Ochsner and De Bakey described the recommended surgical treatment as the primary treatment modality. Surgery remained the therapy of choice until the mid-1980s, when percutaneous drainage was shown to be a safer alternative in many cases. Spontaneous rupture of liver abscess may occur free in the peritoneal cavity or in neighbouring organs, an event which is generally considered as a surgical emergency, while localized rupture can be managed with drainage, either percutaneous or surgical/minimal invasive techniques and addition of appropriate antibiotic treatment. In cases where there is uneventful rupture of abscess and localized to the neighbouring organs and tissues can be successfully treated by a combination of broad-spectrum antibiotics and percutaneous drainage and endoscopic management.

The evolution of hypothermia for neuroprotection after cardiac arrest: a history in the making.

While much has been observed regarding hypothermia by way of environmental exposure, it is modern day medicine that deployed hypothermia as a therapeutic. From the early 1930s, when Temple Fay deployed "refrigeration" to treat pain, to the work of Wilfred Bigelow and Charles Drew, who utilized hypothermia in open heart surgery-the opportunities seemed endless. However, questions arose surrounding appropriate temperatures to achieve best outcomes and how to minimize adverse events, such as coagulopathy and infection. In the 1980s, hypothermia underwent a resurgence through Peter Safar's critical studies in large animals, which quickly translated into feasibility studies and the landmark trials of 2002 that paved the way for postcardiac arrest care as we currently know it. Through clinical and observational trials, modern-day targeted temperature management continues to adapt, striving to improve patient outcomes. While hypothermia has come a long way from the writings of Hippocrates, the ideal therapy has not yet been defined, and more work is needed. While the history is long, there is more to be written and advances to be achieved as we optimize the neuroprotective effects of hypothermia for comatose survivors of cardiac arrest.

The Manchester-Fothergill technique: Browsing in the cutting-edge art gallery.

No consensus regarding the surgical strategy for repairs of pelvic organ prolapse (POP) has existed since the writings of Hippocrates. Archibald Donald of Manchester, in 1888, quite independently began to treat cases of prolapsus uteri with a combined operation of anterior and posterior colporrhaphy and amputation of the cervix. To describe the surgical technique of Manchester-Fothergill and to chart its history. A bibliographic search was performed of the PubMed and National Library of Medicine (NIH) databases. The terms "Manchester-Fothergill" AND "History" AND "Pelvic Organ Prolapse" were searched from the first publication on this topic (1951) to December 2020. Data were extracted from studies independently by two authors. All types of relevant abstracts were selected and analyzed due to the scarcity of studies (books and documents, clinical trials, meta-analysis, randomized controlled trial, review and systematic review). Although this is a well-described procedure in historic texts, the practical application is not often employed, and modern surgical texts rarely describe how to perform this surgery. The advantages of the Manchester-Fothergill technique include maintenance of the pelvic anatomy, integrity, a reduction of intraoperative blood loss, and shortened operation times and hospital stays. Many young gynecologists are not familiar with this operation; therefore, it is important to provide training and exposure to the Manchester-Fothergill technique in the practice of gynecological surgery.

Guanine-Based Purines as an Innovative Target to Treat Major Depressive Disorder.

Guanine-Based Purines as an Innovative Target to Treat Major Depressive Disorder.

History of dermatology: the study of skin diseases over the centuries

The study of skin, the science of dermatology, has undergone significant transformations throughout the centuries. From the first descriptions of skin diseases in Egyptian papyri and in Hippocratic writings to the first treatises on dermatology, important individuals and discoveries have marked the specialty. In the 18th and 19th centuries, the specialty consolidated itself as a field of medical study based on the first classifications of dermatoses, diagnostic methods, and drug treatments. In the 20th century, the scientific and technological revolution transformed dermatological practice, incorporating new therapeutic resources, as well as surgical and aesthetic procedures. In the face of such a vigorous process, it is important to provide a historical synthesis for the medical community to recognize and understand the origins that supported one of the most relevant specialties in the current medical scenario.

The History behind the Discovery of Root Tension Signs and the Invention of the Lumbar Discectomy Surgery.

Introduction Sciatica, a common affliction, has been a well known scourge throughout recorded history of mankind and finds a mention in the writings of Hippocrates [1]. The clinical root tension signs were described in the late 19th century, and their discovery preceded the development of surgical techniques for this disorder. As surgeries became safe at the beginning of the 20th century, surgeons incorrectly diagnosed the pathology as cartilaginous tumors in these operated patients. Finally, by the 1930s, they had started connecting the dots and discovered that lumbar disc herniation was responsible for the clinical syndrome of sciatica. In this report, we trace an interesting history from the discovery of the root tension signs for sciatica to the invention of lumbar discectomy surgery for a herniated lumbar disc. There is a great deal of confusion in the eponymous naming of the passive SLR test in various textbooks. Bruce Reider’s The Orthopaedic Physical Examination, a book popular among orthopedic residents, describes the forced dorsiflexion maneuver as the Laségue’s test [2]. While Todd Albert’s Physical Examination of the Spine describes the same maneuver as Bragard’s test [3]. Most textbooks, however, refrain from using eponymous names to describe these neurological signs, especially because there is so much confusion about them. Nevertheless, the medical history behind these root tension signs is no less fascinating. Many attribute the first description of the passive SLR to Ernst Charlie Laségue (Fig. 1), who was a Professor of Medicine in Paris. In his 1864 paper, he described a syndrome of radicular pain which sometimes was associated with muscle atrophy [4]. However, in this paper, he did not describe the leg raising test. Robert Wartenberg, the owner of a few eponymous signs and syndromes himself, worte in 1956: “it is highly embarrassing to state the plain fact that all authors who quoted Lasègue’s article of 1864 as a source of Lasègue’s sign did not

The history of the formation of phthisiology as a science

Humanity has been familiar with tuberculosis for a long time: the confirmation of this was found during archaeological excavations and the discovery of traces of damage to the remains of people who lived more than 5 thousand years ago. Scientists associate this fact with the high prevalence of mycobacteria among animals, as well as the extreme duration of the disease and the high degree of chronicity of the process. The first descriptions of tuberculous lesions were found in the writings of Hippocrates. The most characteristic symptom of the disease, as in the present days, was considered hemoptysis, and the extreme degree of exhaustion and pulmonary bleeding was quite typical for this category of patients. This disease was initially called consumption, or phthisi. Subsequently, it gave the name to the science that studies various clinical manifestations in the tuberculosis process, their diagnosis and treatment. Today, phthisiology is a clinical discipline that studies the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and differential diagnosis of pulmonary and extrapulmonary forms of tuberculosis, as well as the main approaches to etiotropic and pathogenetic treatment.

ENGLINGHTNING THE HOLISTIC CONCEPT OF BAHAQ-E-ABYAZIN UNANI SYSTEM OF MEDICINE: REVIEW OF LITERATURE.

The study of skin, the science of dermatology, has undergone significant transformations throughout the centuries. From the first descriptions of skin diseases in Egyptian papyri and in Hippocratic writings to the first treatises on dermatology, important individuals and discoveries have marked the specialty. A comprehensive description of Amrazejild (skin diseases) is available in classical Unani literature. Ancient Greco-Arabic scholars have described Bahaq-e-Abyaz (pityriasis) in detail along with etiopathogenesis, clinical features, complications, and management in their treatises. Ancient Unani scholars have been treating Bahaq-e-Abyaz successfully since antiquity. They have mentioned and practiced a compendium of single as well as compound herbo-mineral formulations for the treatment of Bahaq-e-Abyaz. It is important to provide a historical synthesis for the medical community to recognize and understand the holistic concept of Bahaq-e-Abyaz along with the treatment as mentioned in classics of Unani medicine.

Physicians, Fads, and Pharmaceuticals: A History of Aspirin

Aspirin is a product of the late-nineteenth-century laboratory, pharmaceutical industry, and medical community. The prevailing scientific techniques, industrial approaches, and medical beliefs were instrumental in the development, promotion and reception of the drug. As a result, the present account does not extend further back than a few decades prior to the release of aspirin from the laboratories of Farbenfabriken vormals Friedrich Bayer & Co. in 1899. In contrast, much of the current literature on aspirin (2,3,4) attempts to trace the compound back to antiquity through the Ebers papyrus, the Hippocratic writings, and the works of Galen. Such histories tell a simple, linear tale of the numerous "discoveries" proposed to have led to the use of certain salicylate-containing plants, such as willow bark and wintergreen, or salicylate-related compounds, including salicilin and salicylic acid, as cures for a variety of ailments. Indeed, according to Mann and Plummer: Both [salicilin and salicylic acid] attacked fever and pain, and their partisans advocated the salicylates' use as antiseptics, mouthwashes, and water preservatives for ocean voyages; one important chemist further suggested (erroneously) that sodium salicylate, a chemical relative, would successfully treat scarlet fever, diphtheria, measles, syphilis, cholera, rabies and anthrax (5). However, it is difficult to establish what effect, if any, these examples of the "historical" uses of "proto-aspirin" had on the impetus for and modes of developing and using the actual drug called aspirin. As a matter of course, aspirin is usually described as the natural descendant from these salicylate forefathers. However, the history of aspirin is not as straightforward a tale as conventional histories suggest, but rather is a complex narrative of the people and circumstances involved in transforming a simple chemical compound into a popular pharmaceutical product that has remained one of the most widely consumed drugs for almost a century.

Cupping on ancient Greek coins: A numismatic case series and its relationship to dermatology

Cupping is an ancient medical therapy with a modern-day resurgence. This practice has been referred to in the ancient Egyptian papyri and the writings of Hippocrates and Galen. We attempt to bridge the past with the present by showcasing a series of ancient Greek coins from different mints depicting medical cupping vessels and dating as far back as the 4th century bce. This practice has not been sufficiently studied in randomized controlled trials, and a standardized procedure does not exist. The dermatologist may see the consequences of this practice in the office, as it is a complementary medical technique supposed to treat a variety of ailments from joint pain to menstrual problems and leaves a very characteristic morphology. We have showcased three coins of historic numismatic and medical interest that depict ancient cupping vessels. This is the first time these coins have been presented together. A literature search was also performed to outline the theories of the mechanism of action of cupping and to compile a list of reported dermatologic side effects.

Historical aspects of studying craniocervical dystonia

The study of dystonic hyperkinesias has a thousand-year-old history. Beginning with drawings and sculptures from antiquity and up to the present day, modern ideas gradually developed about the phenomenology, origin, and treatment methods of dystonia. Mentions of spastic torticollis, blepharospasm and Meige syndrome can even be found in the writings of Hippocrates and Celsus. Images and monuments from antiquity and ancient civilizations indicate the existence of focal dystonias in those times. The Middle Ages left science with records of cervical dystonia and numerous illustrations in religious images. The first well-known mention of the term ‘torticollis’ belongs to Francois Rabelais. The term started to appear in medical texts later on. One of the earliest medical records on cervical dystonia was made by the Swiss physician Felix Platerus. During the Age of Enlightenment, dystonias became a separate class in disease classification. Modern tendencies in studying dystonia are characterized by identifying the genes responsible for different forms of primary dystonia along with description of their phenotypes. There is an ongoing research on the role of mental disorders in the clinical presentation of dystonia.

2000 years under pressure – The history of glaucoma research

AbstractSince antiquity, glaucoma is known as a rather vaguely defined disease. The Ancient Greeks were the first who described the disorder we call “glaucoma” today already in 400 BC. “Glaykoseis” was first mentioned in Hippocratic writings as a blinding disease occurring most commonly in the elderly. The present talk will describe the very first beginnings of understanding the ophthalmic disease “glaucoma”. The definition of glaucoma has changed drastically since its introduction around the time of Hippocrates. The very first recognition of a disease which might be associated with a rise in intraocular pressure can be found in the Arabian writings, “Book of Hippocratic treatment”, of At‐Tabari (10th century), it took until 1622 to proof this. In Hippocratic writings the term glaucoma was used to describe blindness developing in advancing years associated with a glazed appearance of the pupil. Galen associated the glaucous hue with a large, anterior, or hard crystalline lens. Medieval Arabic authors translated “glaukos” as “zarqaa”, which also commonly described light irides. Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) wrote that the zarqaa hue could occur due to anterior prominence of the lens and could occur in an acquired manner. The disease defined by the glaucous pupil in antiquity is ultimately indeterminate. The specific association of elevated intraocular pressure and the eye disease glaucoma was first described by Richard Banister in 1622.

Before Louise: the history of infertility.

With gender equality and the ‘modern family’, the pace for advances in artificial reproductive technology is fast-moving. Louise Brown was the world's first ‘test tube baby’, born in 1978 (Steptoe & Edwards. Lancet 1978;2:366) (Figure 1). However, infertility and reproductive medicine have featured heavily in ancient mythology of many cultures, reflecting their long-standing value in human society. The Hippocratic Corpus from the 5th and 4th centuries BCE include three chapters on gynaecology and infertility, where infertility had become a medicalised concept and treatment options were proposed. Coxe's translation lists five causes of infertility: ‘the os uteri wrongly situated and firmly closed; the lubricity of the uterus preventing the retention of the seed; ulceration of the body of the uterus consequent to other diseases; retention of the menses; and too great laxity of the orifice of the uterus, precluding the retention of the seed’. Remedies for these afflictions included instrumentation of the stenosed cervical os, a multitude of pessaries containing herbal remedies, fumigation techniques, and specific instructions regarding the timing and method of intercourse (Coxe. The Writings of Hippocrates and Galen, Lindsay & Blakiston, Philadelphia, 306–7). There is also mention of ‘somatic’ or systemic causes, including what we now know as obesity (Flemming. Bull Hist Med 2013;87:565–90). The medicalisation of infertility improved understanding of anatomy and the advent of microscopy drove significant advancements during the 17th century. In 1672, Regnier de Graaf described the ovarian follicles now named after him, at the time believed to be the embryo that migrated to the uterus (Ankum et al. Hum Reprod Update 1996;2:365–9). Spermatozoa was first described in 1677 by microbiologist Anthoni van Leeuwenhoek, who hesitantly inspected his own semen. He wrote to the Royal Society of London stating, ‘If your Lordship should consider that these observations may disgust or scandalise the learned, I earnestly beg your Lordship to regard them as private and to publish or destroy them, as your Lordship sees fit’ (Philos Trans R Soc 1678;12:1040–3). William Smellie wrote on the concept of fertilisation in 1752, outlining the process of ovulation, transit of the ovum through the fallopian tube, and describing semen as ‘abounding with animalcula, that swim about in it like so many tadpoles’ (Smellie. A treatise on the theory and practice of midwifery, Balliere Tindall, London, 1974 reprint; 113–4). Spallanzani pioneered artificial insemination in 1784, achieving pregnancy in dogs, while Dr John Hunter performed the first successful artificial insemination in a human in 1790 for a man with hypospadias (Guttmacher. Ann NY Acad Sci 1962;97:623–31). Contrast this gradual development in reproductive medicine since Hippocrates with the 40 years since Louise Brown's birthday in 1978. The advances in reproductive technology – sperm and egg donors, intracytoplasmic sperm injection, frozen intravenous fertilisation cycles, surrogacy, gamete intrafallopian transfer and preimplantation genetic diagnosis – are remarkable. Improved take-home-baby rates, fewer multiple pregnancies, lower rates of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, and time-lapse embryology have followed. This rate of advancement likely reflects our societal drive to develop these technologies, with corresponding improvement in outcomes as described in this issue. The next 40 years are likely to be exciting. None declared. Completed disclosure of interests form available to view online as supporting information. Please note: The publisher is not responsible for the content or functionality of any supporting information supplied by the authors. Any queries (other than missing content) should be directed to the corresponding author for the article.

L’equilibrio dopo il movimento: percezione e conoscenza fra Democrito e i medici ippocratici

Abstract This paper analyses chapter 58 of Theophrastus’ De sensibus, where Democritus’ account of phronein is famously presented. Democritus traces phronein to symmetria of the soul, that is conceived, in turn, as a state of thermic equilibrium, depending on his consideration of psyche as an aggregate of spherical and thin atoms flowing throughout the body and giving it life, movement, and perception. As a consequence, according to him, psychic states go hand in hand with changes in the body. In the following section of this paper, I offer additional evidence in favor of the controversial manuscript reading μετὰ τὴν κίνησιν. As a result, a consistent theory by Democritus can be reconstructed, according to which the balanced state of mobility and temperature of the psychic atoms concentrated in the head that generates a correct thinking necessarily follows the movement of sensible eidola throughout the body. In fact, a number of passages from Hippocratic writings attest that Democritus shared the key features of this explanation with the physiological and medical approach of the time.

Fabio Calvo – Translator, Editor and Falsifier of Hippocratic Writings

Fabio Calvo (c. 1440–1527) from Ravenna, friend and humanistic adviser of the painter Raphael in Rome, published the Latin first edition of the Hippocratic Corpus in 1525, one year before the Aldine edition (Greek editio princeps, 1526). Calvo’s edition was criticized early for its editorial flaws, but nevertheless regarded as a serious source for readings and text passages which are otherwise not transmitted. On subsequent Greek editions it has had an impact that has continued to some extent even to modern times. While Calvo’s text has repeatedly been identified as a source of perpetuated errors and textual interventions, there has not yet been a comprehensive summary study of his edition and its impact on later scholarship. This paper focusses on the especially problematic textual material in Calvo, i. e. intentional or unintended mistranslations, textual additions and surplus text that is not found in any of the known manuscripts. Thus, for eleven Hippocratic treatises, which are lost or were then unknown to Calvo, he amazingly (composed and) printed beginnings of their prefaces. Even for some well-known Hippocratic treatises additional introductory sections are given that are not transmitted elsewhere. Two dubious pseudo-Hippocratic writings are included in Calvo’s edition. The first one is a translation of two chapters from Aetius of Amida’s (4th century AD) Byzantine medical compilation. The second one seems to be an abridged and rearranged version of the pseudogalenic “On urines”. Pseudo-Balbus’ “De Asse” (on medical weights and measures) is included in Calvo’s print as well. For the most part of this treatise, as edited by Calvo, there is no evidence in the manuscripts known today. While a significant portion of the surplus passages in Calvo is evidently a fabrication, as this study demonstrates, the origin of the additional passages of Pseudo-Balbus’ treatise remains unclear. There has not yet been a systematic evaluation of Calvo’s edition, the possibility of discovering further textual oddities in it therefore remains.

The Role of Exercise in Hippocratic Medicine

The crucial role of exercise in mental and physical health is a research field with growing interest in recent years. Scientific disciplines such as medicine, psychology and coaching, search the benefits of participation in training programs. Hippocrates has a separate thesis among the pioneers who recorded the benefits of equilibrated diet and exercise. This research aims to specify and assay the role of exercise in Hippocratic Medicine. After a review of literature, the Hippocratic writings “Regimen in Health - Πeρί διαίτης”, were identified and analyzed as the texts which containing the thesis of exercise in Hippocratic Medicine.