Hill Partridge Research Articles

The distinct determinants of distribution of kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelanos and common hill partridge Arborophila torqueola: vegetative and anthropogenic variables

The distinct determinants of distribution of kalij pheasant Lophura leucomelanos and common hill partridge Arborophila torqueola: vegetative and anthropogenic variables

Development and Application of Potentially Universal Microsatellite Markers for Pheasant Species

Pheasants are widely distributed in the southwest of China, but many of them are endangered due to habitat fragmentation and environmental changes. Genetic diversity is crucial for species to maintain their evolutionary potential, and thus it is important to develop universal genetic markers for facilitating the assessment of genetic diversity and planning effective conservation actions in these endangered species. In this study, 471 microsatellite loci which are common among eight pheasant species were screened based on genome data, and 119 loci were selected to develop microsatellite markers. After PCR amplifications and reaction condition optimizations, and validation of microsatellite loci in 14 species of 11 genera within Phasianidae. Finally, 49 potentially universal microsatellite markers in pheasant species were obtained. These microsatellite markers were successfully applied to assess the genetic diversity of 3 pheasant species. The Sichuan hill partridge (Arborophila rufipectus), blood pheasant (Ithaginis cruentus), buff-throated partridge (Tetraophasis szechenyii) and Sichuan hill partridge had a relatively low genetic diversity level. These 49 microsatellite loci are potentially universal microsatellite loci for pheasants and are of great significance to establish a shared platform in population genetics study of pheasants.

Assessing Micro-habitat Preferences of Hill Partridge (Arborophila torqueola) in the Central Himalayan landscape of India

Ground-dwelling birds are one of the most vulnerable taxa. These birds are also under-studied and therefore constitute the lesser-known group of aves. Understanding their patterns of resource selection and their relationship with the composites of their habitat is a prerequisite for ensuring the effectiveness of future conservation efforts. Hill partridge ( Arborophila torqueola) is distributed in a vast range throughout the Himalayas to South-East Asia but knowledge about its micro-habitat is provided by only a single short term study from China. Their sulking behavior and inconspicuous habitat type make it extremely challenging to study them closely. However, with the advent of camera traps, it was possible to observe them meticulously during this study. We attempted to discern the patterns of its habitat selection, and its relationship with various vegetative and non-vegetative components. This study revealed a complex pattern of habitat selection by hill partridge. They preferred habitat with a greater canopy and bamboo cover. It inhabited forests dominated by oak trees in combination with other trees. They were virtually absent from the sites that showed higher bare-ground percentages.

Analysis of trade in endemic Javan hill partridges over the last quarter of a century period

There is increasing recognition of the impact that wildlife trade has on globally threatened and geographically restricted species. For only a few species do we have long-term datasets on their presence in domestic trade. The Asian Songbird Trade Crisis has highlighted the detrimental role that the cage bird trade has on populations of wild birds (songbirds and others) throughout Asia. Starting in 1994, I have visited bird markets in Java and Bali, Indonesia, recording the presence of chestnut-bellied hill partridges Arborophila javanica (endemic to most of Java apart from the easternmost part) and white-faced hill partridges A. orientalis (endemic to easternmost Java). The data thus collected allowed me to test hypotheses related to rarity, price, and purported population trends. No change in the number of hill partridges in trade was observed over this period. The more widespread chestnut-bellied hill partridge was recorded in higher numbers (mean of 1.7 birds survey−1) than white-faced hill partridges (mean of 0.4 birds survey−1). I monitored their online trade on four bird selling platforms and two dedicated hill partridge Facebook pages. Like the trade in the bird markets, the chestnut-bellied hill partridge was recorded in higher numbers than white-faced hill partridges (106 vs 44 birds). Both species were for sale both within and outside their native ranges (17 cities for chestnut-bellied and 10 cities for white-face hill partridges) suggesting extensive trade networks with birds being transported hundreds of kilometres. Average asking prices were similar for both species (US$31) and were not related to the minimum monthly wage of the cities in which the birds were offered for sale. I estimate that annually 3500 chestnut-bellied hill partridges and 700 white-faced hill partridges are sold in the bird markets on Java and Bali. Despite the absence of a harvest quota, the presence of both species over a 27-year period in numerous bird markets, and over the last decade online, indicated the absence of commitment and political and societal pressures to curb the illegal trade in birds in Indonesia.

Effects of environmental changes on interspecific interactions of three sympatric pheasants – A study based on long-term monitoring data

• Interactions of 3 pheasants were studied using a new model based on long-term data. • And considered habitat filtering and indirect species interactions together. • Both positive and negative interactions existed among 3 pheasants. • Species interactions varied with habitat heterogeneity and stress levels in 11 years. As the lack of a general understanding of how interspecific interactions change along varying environmental gradients exists, predicting the response of ecological communities to habitat and climate change becomes an arduous task. Researchers generally assess interspecific interactions by investigating species co-occurrence patterns. However, habitat filtering and indirect interspecific interactions can interfere with interspecific interaction signals in co-occurrence data, and these two factors have rarely been considered jointly in previous studies. By using the Markov random fields model which can control the indirect interaction, based on the 11-year co-occurrence data, we analyzed the effects of environmental factors on the interaction of three sympatric pheasant species (Chinese Bamboo Partridge Bambusicola thoracicus , Sichuan Hill Partridge Arborophila rufipectu , Temminck's Tragopan Tragopan temminckii ) in Laojunshan National Nature Reserve, China. To eliminate the interference of habitat filtering, we took the environmental change during the 11-year period as the environmental variable instead of the environmental spatial gradient commonly used in previous studies. We found that the positive interaction increased with the increase of temperature, and decreased with the increase of precipitation, and with the increase of EVI heterogeneity, the positive interaction increased and the negative interaction decreased. The results are consistent with the predictions of habitat heterogeneity hypothesis and stress gradient hypothesis. Our study provides an idea for the follow-up studies of how to eliminate the interference of habitat filtering and indirect interaction in interspecific interaction analysis.

Disentangling the evolutionary history and biogeography of hill partridges (Phasianidae, Arborophila) from low coverage shotgun sequences

The advent of the phylogenomic era has significantly improved our understanding of the evolutionary history and biogeography of Southeast Asia’s diverse avian fauna. However, the taxonomy and phylogenetic relationships of many Southeast Asian birds remain poorly resolved, especially for those with large geographic ranges, which might have experienced both ancient and recent geological and environmental changes. In this study, we examined the evolutionary history and biogeography of the hill partridges (Galliformes: Phasianidae: Arborophila spp.), currently the second most speciose galliform genus, and thought to have colonized Southeast Asia from Africa. We present a well‐resolved phylogeny of 14 Arborophila species inferred from ultra-conserved elements, exons, and mitochondrial genomes from both fresh and museum samples, which representing almost complete coverage of the genus. Our fossil-calibrated divergence time estimates and biogeographic modeling showed the ancestor of Arborophila arrived in Indochina during the early Miocene, but the initial divergence within Arborophila did not occur until ~10 Ma when global cooling intensified. Subsequent dispersal and diversification within Arborophila were driven by several tectonic and climatic events. In particular, we found evidence of rapid radiation in Indochinese Arborophila during the Pliocene global cooling and extensive dispersal and speciation of Sundaic Arborophila during the Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations. Taken together, these results suggest that the evolutionary history and biogeography of Arborophila were influenced by complex interactions among historical, geological and climatic events in Southeast Asia.

A novel mitochondrial genome of Arborophila and new insight into Arborophila evolutionary history.

The lineage of the Bar-backed Partridge (Arborophila brunneopectus) was investigated to determine the phylogenetic relationships within Arborophila as the species is centrally distributed within an area covered by the distributions of 22 South-east Asian hill partridge species. The complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of A. brunneopectus was determined and compared with four other hill partridge species mitogenomes. NADH subunit genes are radical in hill partridge mitogenomes and contain the most potential positive selective sites around where variable sites are abundant. Together with 44 other mitogenomes of closely related species, we reconstructed highly resolved phylogenetic trees using maximum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian inference (BI) analyses and calculated the divergence and dispersal history of Arborophila using combined datasets composed of their 13-protein coding sequences. Arborophila is reportedly be the oldest group in Phasianidae whose ancestors probably originated in Asia. A. rufipectus shares a closer relationship with A. ardens and A. brunneopectus compared to A. gingica and A. rufogularis, and such relationships were supported and profiled by NADH dehydrogenase subunit 5 (ND5). The intragenus divergence of all five Arborophila species occurred in the Miocene (16.84~5.69 Mya) when there were periods of climate cooling. We propose that these cooling events in the Miocene forced hill partridges from higher to lower altitudes, which led to geographic isolation and speciation. We demonstrated that the apparently deleterious +1 frameshift mutation in NADH dehydrogenase subunit 3 (ND3) found in all Arborophila is an ancient trait that has been eliminated in some younger lineages, such as Passeriformes. It is unclear of the biological advantages of this elimination for the relevant taxa and this requires further investigation.

High-throughput microsatellite markers discovery for the Sichuan Hill Partridge (Arborophila rufipectus) and assessment of genetic diversity in the Laojunshan population

Sichuan Hill Partridge (Arborophila rufipectus) is a globally endangered species endemic to China. However, the genetic diversity of this species was poorly studied due to lack of molecular markers. We used 454 pyrosequencing to discover microsatellites from the A. rufipectus genome in this study. A total of 6280 di-nucleotides, 8139 tri-nucleotides, and 11,987 tetra-nucleotides with sufficient flanking region for primer design were screened with in silico mining. Ultimately, 18 tetra-nucleotide polymorphic loci were first identified and used to examine the genetic diversity in the Laojunshan population. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 5 to 13, observed and expected heterozygosity varied from 0.292 to 0.917 and 0.722 to 0.909, respectively. These results revealed that this endangered species' genetic diversity as not as low as expected. However, a heterozygote deficit was found in the Laojunshan population. We proposed that the management should focus on increasing the connectivity of remnant patches and fragments to increase the opportunity of greater gene flow among fragmented populations of A. rufipectus. This is the first time that polymorphic microsatellite markers were reported for A. rufipectus. These markers provide a valuable resource for future population genetics studies and for the management and conservation of this species.

Revival of the genusTropicoperdix Blyth 1859 (Phasianidae, Aves) using multilocus sequence data

Although Tropicoperdix has been considered to be either a full genus or a species complex within the Phasianid genus Arborophila (hill partridges), there is long-standing uncertainty regarding the degree of difference that warrants generic separation, including reported anatomical cranial differences. In addition, the intra-generic taxonomy remains under dispute. Most studies hypothesize that Tropicoperdix comprises three species, while others postulate from one to four species. However, no molecular study has been performed to clarify the systematic and taxonomic uncertainties surrounding Tropicoperdix. In the present study, we performed a series of molecular phylogenetic analyses of Tropicoperdix and Arborophila taxa based on two mitochondrial genes and five nuclear introns. All the results are consistent with the finding that Tropicoperdix and Arborophila are phylogenetically distinct and distant genera, although the precise phylogenetic position of Tropicoperdix remains undetermined. Retrospective examination of external characteristics also supports the generic separation, as well as providing evidence of remarkable multiple character convergence. We propose that Tropicoperdix comprises at least two full species based on mitochondrial data obtained from museum specimens by using a next-generation sequencing method. © 2015 The Linnean Society of London

Was the exposed continental shelf a long-distance colonization route in the ice age? The Southeast Asia origin of Hainan and Taiwan partridges

Research on island biotas has greatly contributed to the development of modern evolutionary and biogeographic theories. Until now, most studies have suggested that continental islands received their biotas directly from the adjacent mainland. However, only a few studies have indicated that species on continental islands might originate from other distantly non-adjacent regions. Here, we used the hill partridges (genus Arborophila) that are widely distributed in the southwest and southeast China mainland, Indochina, Hainan and Taiwan islands to test whether species on continental islands might originate from distant regions rather than the adjacent mainland. Based on molecular phylogenies inferred from three mitochondrial fragments and three nuclear introns, together with ancestral area reconstruction, we found that the ancestors of the endemic Hainan and Taiwan partridges (A. ardens and A. crudigularis) likely originated from Indochina, rather than the nearby southeast China mainland. The divergence time estimates demonstrate that their ancestors likely colonized Hainan and Taiwan islands using the long exposed continental shelf between Indochina, Hainan and Taiwan islands during glacial periods, which had not been demonstrated before. Thus, integrating distribution data with phylogenetic information can shed new lights on the historical biogeography of continental islands and surrounding mainland regions.

Winter feeding sites selection of White-browed Hill Partridge

The winter feeding sites of White-browed Hill Partridge (Arborophila gingica) was investigated in Jiuwanshan National Nature Reserve in Guangxi from November to December 2010. With the 34 found feeding sites, the used sites (n=25) were compared with the control sites (n=25), and 19 parameters were measured at each site. The results showed that White-browed Hill Partridge randomly use broadleaved forest, mixed coniferous-broadleaved forest, mixed broadleaved-bai bamboo (Indosasa shibataeoides) forest and bai bamboo forest, while they rarely occurred in mao bamboo (Phyllostachys edulis) forest and China fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) forest. The birds prefer to select the southeast-facing slops of 20-44 degrees, with smaller bai bamboo-shrub and grass density, lower bai bamboo-shrub and grass coverage, and greater shatter coverage. We found that the main selection factors at the used and control feeding sites, using the Step DA, were the shatter coverage, slope, and bai bamboo-shrub coverage. The veracity to distinguish was 86.0%. The feeding sites selection of White-browed Hill Partridge is associate with food resources and safety index, thus, we suggest that the protection should focus on these two aspects.

The complete mitochondrial genome of the Sichuan Hill Partridge ( Arborophila rufipectus) and a phylogenetic analysis with related species

The complete sequence of the mitochondrial genome of the Sichuan Hill Partridge ( Arborophila rufipectus) has been determined by long and accurate polymerase chain reaction (LA-PCR) and with primer walking sequence method. The genome is 16728 bp in size, containing 2 ribosomal RNA genes, 13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA (tRNA) genes and one control region, demonstrating a structure very similar to that of other phasianids. In order to investigate the phylogenetic position of Arborophila within Phasianidae, the sequences of 12 concatenated heavy-strand encoded protein coding genes were used for phylogenetic analysis employing a Bayesian inference method, Maximum parsimony (MP) analyses and Maximum likelihood (ML) analysis. With the exception of a few nodes, most internal branches were supported by high Bayesian posterior probabilities (BPP) and bootstrap probabilities (BSP). Using the 12 mitochondrial protein-coding genes sequence, we performed the likelihood tests of competing tree topologies , and also tried to estimate the divergence time within Phasianidae by the global rate minimum deformation method (GRMD), both with the previously constructed ML tree using Treefinder (Jobb, G., 2008. TREEFINDER version of February 2007. Munich(Germany).) The combined strict consensus tree demonstrated that Arborophila rufipectus possessed a basal phylogenetic position within Phasianidae. Our results also showed that the turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo) had a close relationship with the gallopheasant group, which may suggest that the turkey should be classified into the Phasianidae. In addition, Phasianus was found to share a closer relationship with Lophura than Syrmaticus with robust support.

Habitat utilization during the pairing season by the Common Hill Partridge Arborophila torqueola in Baiposhan Natural Reserve, Sichuan, China

A goal of many resource selection studies is to identify those habitats se- lected by a species. However, favorability of a particular habitat feature is likely con- tingent on such factors as landscape composition, predation risk, and an individual's resource needs. Identifying causes of variability in habitat utilization may serve to increase our understanding of the functional aspects of a species' habitat ecology. The Common Hill Partridge Arborophila torqueola is a species that requires broadleaf forest, but whose populations have declined as a result of fragmentation of subtropi- cal forest. While habitat conditions during the pairing season (March-April) are thought to be important for the Common Hill Partridge's survival and reproduction, information on habitat utilization during this period is limited. We investigated habitat utilization by Hill Partridges within Baiposhan Natural Reserve in the mountains of southwestern China. We used pointing dogs to locate Hill Partridges during the pair- ing seasons of 2004 and 2005, and measured habitat characteristics at 60 flush sites and 60 associated random sites (within 100 m of flush sites). We recorded information on terrain, vegetation traits and defoliation leaf layer. Hill Partridges mainly utilized sites within elevations of 2,400-2,900 m and with an east-facing slope of 28.6� 2.9 degrees, close to water resources and roads. The utilized sites had greater tree cover, shrub cover and thicker defoliation layers than randomly available, whereas numbers of bamboo and bamboo cover were less at flush sites than at random sites. PCA indi- cated that concealment, food, terrain and water resources best explained the birds' habitat utilization. Forest management practices that reduce poaching, livestock and logging may benefit the Common Hill Partridge through raising habitat quality and availability. Based on habitat utilization patterns of the partridges, we discussed the difference of habitat between them and Sichuan Partridge A. rufipectus, and indicated that Common Hill Partridges in the reserve should be Common Hill Partridges rather than Sichuan Partridges.

Malaria parasites of toucans.

SYNOPSIS. Of 2 species of malaria parasites described from the toco toucan (Ramphastos toco), one (Plasmodium huffi) has been thought to be of doubtful validity, mainly because the erythrocytic cycle was said to include 2 distinct types of segmenters, varying greatly in size and fecundity. We recently found a parasite in a Swainson's toucan (R. swainsonii) which seems the same as the smaller component of P. huffi, and a 2nd small species of Plasmodium, apparently P. rouxi, in the blood of a sulfur‐breasted toucan (R. s. sulfuratus). Unlike P. huffi, the former is easily transmissible by blood inoculation to canaries, in which it causes a highly fatal infection. It resembles P. nucleophilum structurally, tho there are minor differences. We propose to call it Plasmodium nucleophilum tucani. In sharp contrast to P. huffi, only mature erythrocytes in the blood are parasitized. Death of infected canaries seems to be the result of massive invasion of the internal organs, especially lungs and brain, by exoerythrocytic stages. A number of other bird species, among them the common jungle babbler, lesser hill mynah, ring‐necked and sacred white dove, common pigeon, and Indian hill partridge (chukar) proved essentially refractory, but the collared aracari developed a mild infection much like that observed in toucans. Two young sulfur‐breasted toucans failed to become infected when given heavy dosages of blood from a blue‐eared glossy starling having a naturally acquired infection of Plasmodium nucleophilum, of the type occurring in passerines.

A New Species of Avian Plasmodium

SYNOPSIS. A new species of avian malaria parasite is described, for which the name Plasmodium formosanum is proposed. It was observed in the blood of Arboriphila crudigularis, the Formosan hill partridge; other bird species in which it may occur remain unknown, as do the mosquito vectors. It produces very broad, elongate gametocytes, the macrogametocyte usually exhibiting a very large vacuole. The usual number of merozoites is eight. The host cell nucleus typically is not displaced, except laterally by the sexual forms. Only the stages occurring in the blood have yet been seen.