Highest Massifs Research Articles

The Late Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Settlement of Northern Italy: Problems and Perspectives

This paper considers some problems of the Late Palaeolithic and the Mesolithic periods in Northern Italy. More precisely, it deals with chronology, settlement pattern, techno-typological characteristics of knapped stone assemblages, and climatic changes that have taken place in the region from the discovery of the first sites in the 1960s and the excavations that soon followed to the present state of research. The Italian Alps, the Piedmont, and the valleys that descend from the high massifs have yielded important traces of Late Palaeolithic (Final Epigravettian) and Mesolithic (Sauveterrian and Castelnovian) sites and findspots, some of which are rock shelters that were settled throughout several millennia. This paper describes and discusses the evidence available mainly from two regions of the western and eastern Alpine arc, which are characterised by very different landscapes and yielded a great variety of archaeological features.

Glaciers Landscapes during the Pleistocene in Trevinca Massif (Northwest Iberian Peninsula)

The Trevinca Massif is in the northwestern Iberian Peninsula, on the border between Galicia and Castilla-León. Its highest elevation is 2124 m at the Trevinca peak. During the Pleistocene, an extensive icefield developed in this area, occupying the flattened surfaces in the high massif zones, and generating several glacier valleys. In the occidental sector, the identified paleoglaciers reached 187 km2, and glacier tongues up to 30 km in the Bibei valley, where the ice thickness came to 527 m. The glacial forms and deposits were mapped and analyzed in the entire Trevinca massif, whereas the paleoglacial reconstruction was carried out in the occidental sector (previous works analyzed the oriental sector). The reconstruction was performed by using high-resolution orthophotography, digital elevation models with a spatial resolution of 2 m, and fieldwork surveys to identify the primary forms and estimate the ice cover in the past through the GlaRe methodology. Moreover, the paleo-ELA was estimated for this sector, and the values of the ice thickness, the ELA position, and the moraines were related to other nearest sectors to analyze their similarities and differences. Three main paleoglaciers were identified in the occidental Trevinca massif (Xares, Canda, and Bibei-Barxacova). Bibei showed the highest ice thickness and ice extension, occupying more than 140 km2 and with a thickness above 500 m some areas. Concerning the ELA, the values varied between the minimum at Xares with 1427 m and the maximum at Bibei-Barxacova with 1839 m. Four groups were identifying based on moraine ridges and were related to the different climatic phases in that sector.

Empirical modelling of snow cover duration patterns in complex terrains of Italy

Snow cover duration is a crucial climate change indicator. However, measurements of days with snow cover on the ground (DSG) are limited, especially in complex terrains, and existing measurements are fragmentary and cover only relatively short time periods. Here, we provide observational and modelling evidence that it is possible to produce reliable time-series of DSG for Italy based on instrumental measurements, and historical documentary data derived from various sources, from a limited set of stations and areas in the central-southern Apennines (CSA) of Italy. The adopted modelling approach reveals that DSG estimates in most settings in Italy can be driven by climate factors occurring in the CSA. Taking into account spatial scale-dependence, a parsimonious model was developed by incorporating elevation, winter and spring temperatures, a large-scale circulation index (the Atlantic Multidecadal Variability, AMV) and a snow-severity index, with in situ DSG data, based on a core snow cover dataset covering 97 years (88% coverage in the 1907–2018 period and the rest, discontinuously from 1683 to 1895, from historical data of the Benevento station). The model was validated on the basis of the identification of contemporary snow cover patterns and historical evidence of summer snow cover in high massifs. Beyond the CSA, validation obtained across terrains of varying complexity in both the northern and southern sectors of the peninsula indicate that the model holds potential for applications in a broad range of geographical settings and climatic situations of Italy. This article advances the study of past, present and future DSG changes in the central Mediterranean region.

Spatial characterization of glacial and periglacial landforms in the highlands of Sierra Nevada (Spain).

Sierra Nevada constitutes the southernmost and highest massif in the Iberian Peninsula, with elevations exceeding 3000m. Two large glacial advances were recorded during the Last Glaciation and several minor advances occurred until the Early Holocene. Since then, periglacial activity has prevailed above 2500m. Here, we present a new and more accurate geomorphological map of the highlands of Sierra Nevada, integrating in a GIS environment i) high resolution satellite imagery, ii) topographic data, and iii) field observations. This approach has allowed a better characterization of the spatial extent of cold-climate morphogenic processes and associated landforms formed during the Last Glaciation and subsequent deglaciation. Despite its extension and high altitude, the steep relief of Sierra Nevada and its southern location conditioned a significantly lower glaciated surface (104.6km2) with respect to other Iberian massifs. We have also inferred the paleoclimatic conditions of the study area through the calculation of Equilibrium Line Altitudes (ELAs). The distribution of the lowest moraines suggests an ELA for the maximum glacial extent at 2525m in the northern slope and 2650m in the southern side, increasing towards the east. Local ELA differences are related to: (i) the influence of the warmer Mediterranean Sea in contrast to the cooler Atlantic Ocean, (ii) the climate with more continental characteristics on the northern slope, and (iii) the microscale control of the local topography. Mean annual air temperatures in the ice-free summit plateaus were between -4/-6°C during the maximum local glacial extent, determining permafrost conditions with intense periglacial dynamics. Rock glaciers and protalus lobes developed until 2500m, the lowest boundary for permafrost regime. The distribution of other glacial and periglacial landforms within the limits of the maximum ice extent provides evidence to better understand the extent of subsequent glacial stages and post-glacial landscape evolution in Sierra Nevada.

Evidencias de actividad glaciar durante el Dryas reciente (12,9-11,7 ka BP) en la Península Ibérica

El Dryas Reciente (Younger Dryas) (GS-1, entre 12,9 y 11,7 ka BP) se caracterizó por un marcado descenso de la temperatura a escala global. La consecuencia fue un re avance de los glaciares que afectó también a las cordilleras más importantes de la Península Ibérica. Este trabajo revisa la información disponible sobre la localización, evolución y extensión de tales glaciares. La actividad geomorfológica durante el Dryas Reciente en la Península Ibérica se ha identificado mediante depósitos morrénicos, umbrales rocosos pulidos por el hielo, y glaciares rocosos, datados en la mayor parte de los casos mediante métodos cosmogénicos. Los mejores ejemplos de morrenas del Dryas Reciente se localizan en los Pirineos, donde se desarrollaron cortas lenguas glaciares de hasta 4 km de longitud en los macizos más elevados y numerosos glaciares de circo. También hay evidencias de pequeños glaciares de circo y glaciares rocosos en la Cordillera Cantábrica y en el Sistema Central (sierras de Gredos y Guadarrama), como indican umbrales rocosos y depósitos morrénicos en el frente de circos glaciares. En cambio, en Sierra Nevada, en el extremo meridional de la Península Ibérica, las únicas evidencias del Younger Dryas son glaciares rocosos que se desarrollaron durante el Dryas Antiguo y estuvieron funcionales durante todo el Dryas reciente

Disjunct Distribution Patterns in Vascular Flora of the Sudetes

This paper presents an analysis of the disjunctive distribution patterns of vascular plants in the central part of the Sudetes, a mountain range in central Europe. These disjunctions concern mainly species occurring in the highest massifs located over 100 km apart. We studied (1) distribution patterns of 55 taxa in the Sudetes defined on the basis of chorological studies, (2) types of distribution of these plants in Europe based on a hierarchic system of floristic geoelements, and (3) vertical ranges of taxa with a special focus on their absolute minimum and maximum altitudes. The disjunctions were formed during warm periods of the Holocene; in the central part of the Sudetes, there are no relic treeless habitats that could explain the occurrence of the studied species. The largest refugia of these species are in glacial cirques and nival hollows of the Karkonosze Mts. (Poland) and the Hrubý Jesenik Mts. (Czech Republic).

Mountain glacier evolution in the Iberian Peninsula during the Younger Dryas

We review the evolution of glaciers in the Iberian Mountains during the Younger Dryas (12.9–11.7 ka, following the chronology of Greenland Stadial 1 – GS1) and compare with available environmental and climate data to investigate glacier dynamics during cold stadial episodes. The best examples of Younger Dryas moraines are found in the Central Pyrenees, involving short ice tongues up to 4 km in length in the highest massifs (above 3000 m a.s.l.) of the southern versant. Small cirque glaciers and rock glaciers formed during the YD occurred in other Pyrenean massifs, in the Cantabrian Range and in the Gredos and Guadarrama sierras (Central Range), as indicated by several rocky, polished thresholds that were ice-free at the beginning of the Holocene. Although some former rock glaciers were re-activated during the Younger Dryas, glacial activity was limited in the southernmost part of the Iberian Peninsula (Sierra Nevada).Most Iberian records show vegetation changes during the YD characterized by a forest decline and an expansion of shrubs (mainly Juniperus) and steppe herbs, although the vegetation response was not homogeneous because of variable resilience among ecosystems. Available records also document a variable lake response in terms of hydrology and productivity, with a decrease in sedimentation rates and organic productivity in most high altitude lakes and increases in salinity and relatively lower lake levels at lower altitudes. The impact of the Younger Dryas on the coastal environment was almost negligible, but it was responsible for a brief cessation in sea level rise. High-resolution analyses of new speleothem records have documented a double structure for the YD with an earlier drier phase followed by a relatively more humid period.The review of geomorphological evidence demonstrates a strong latitudinal control of glacial activity during the YD, with more intense development in the northern than in the southern regions. The increase in humidity during the second phase of the YD in southern latitudes could have been a decisive factor for glacier advance in the northern Iberian mountains.

Spatial and temporal variability of periglaciation of the Iberian Peninsula

Active periglacial processes are currently marginal in the Iberian Peninsula, spatially limited to the highest mountain ranges. However, a wide variety of periglacial deposits and landforms are distributed in low and mid-altitude environments, which shows evidence of past periods of enhanced periglacial activity. The purpose of this paper is to summarize the present knowledge of past periglacial activity in the Iberian Peninsula. The chronological framework takes four main stages into account: the last glaciation, deglaciation, Holocene and present-day processes. This study focuses on the highest massifs (Pyrenees, Cantabrian Range, NW ranges, Central Range, Iberian Range, Sierra Nevada) as well as other lower elevation environments, namely the central Iberian Meseta. During the last glaciation the periglacial belt extended to much lower altitudes than today, reaching current sea level in the NW corner of the Iberian Peninsula. A wide range of geomorphological landforms and sedimentary records is indicative of very active periglacial processes during that phase, in some cases related to permafrost conditions (i.e., block streams, rock glaciers). Most of the inactive landforms and deposits in low and mid-elevations in Iberia are also related to this phase. The massive deglaciation of the Iberian massifs was caused by a gradual increase in temperatures. The deglaciation phase was only interrupted by a short period with colder conditions (the Younger Dryas) that reactivated periglacial processes in the formerly glaciated cirques of the highest lands, specifically with the widespread development of rock glaciers. During the Holocene, periglacial processes have been only active in the highest ranges, shifting in altitude according to temperature regimes and moisture conditions. The Little Ice Age saw the reactivation of periglacial activity in lower elevations than today. Currently, periglacial processes are only active in elevations exceeding 2500 m in the southern ranges and above 2000–2200 m in the northern massifs, higher in Sierra Nevada, in the south of Iberian Peninsula.

Late Glacial and Holocene paleoenvironmental records in the Tatra Mountains, East-Central Europe, based on lake, peat bog and colluvial sedimentary data: A summary review

The Tatra Mountains are the highest massif in the Carpathian mountain arc (2655 m) and represent a typical alpine landscape developed in the course of Pleistocene glaciations, but are not glacierized today. The glacial relief of the massif offers an abundance of topographic depressions (cirque overdeepenings, morainic closed depressions) where sedimentary sequences may potentially reveal paleoenvironmental changes that may have occurred since the glaciers' retreat from the Last Glacial Maximum position (∼26–18 ka). We present a review of Late Glacial and Holocene sedimentary archives from the Tatra Mountains collected in the Polish and non-Polish literature. The data sets (40 sites) included 21 lake, 13 peat bog, and 6 colluvial sediment sites. The entire listed sediment sequence features radiometric datings or at the very least a chronological framework is inferred from the biostratigraphy. The oldest sampled sedimentary sequences were dated back to the Oldest Dryas and were obtained from the deepest glacial lakes located in the subalpine zone (up to 1700 m). Shallow lakes (<10 m) and morainic closed depressions do not reveal sediments older than the Holocene. This can be linked with dry climate conditions and unfavorable hydrologic regimes during the Late Glacial when the studied depressions remained dry over the long term following deglaciation, irrespective of elevation and position in the glaciated valley system. For the Holocene, several millennial-scale phases of climate humidity and increased debris flow activity were identified. The intensification of debris flows is indicated at 9–7.5 ka and during the mid- to late Holocene (at ca. 6 ka, 3.5 ka, 2 ka, after 300 AD, 800–1000 AD, and LIA), separated by relatively stable climate conditions during the 'Holocene thermal optimum' (7.5–6 ka). The LIA in the Tatra Mountains was a relatively long (1220–1925 AD) and climatically unstable period, with a cold and dry first phase (1220–1540 AD), followed by a cold and humid phase (1540–1925 AD). During the modern warm period, renewed intensification of extreme slope processes has been recorded after 1970 AD.

Glaciarismo en la divisoria cantábrica: La evolución del glaciarismo Cuaternario en la Sierra de Cebolleda (León)

The Sierra de Cebolleda (Leon province, Castilla y Leon) is a 10 km length part of tha Cantabrian Divide, located to the South of Picos de Europa, the highest massif in the Cantabrian Mountain. The high lithological diversity and monocline structure have addressed the Quaternay glaciation. The paper studies the glacial evolution by mean of the glacial features and the objective is to know the temporal evolution and extent of Quaternary glaciers and to establish as accurate as possible correlations with the other Cantabrian massifs. A geomorphological map to scale 1/25,000, ELA calculation of each glacier and glacial period, and a morphostrtigraphical analysis, including aspect, front altitudes, glaciers lenght and ELA have been made. Eleven glaciers systems have been reconstructed, defining in the North side tongues longer than 5 km and a medium altitude of fronts of 1120 m a.s.l. The moraine complex point to between one and four glacial stages in each valley. Four glacial stages have been establish: two of alike extent (F1 and F2), a retreated and equilibrium stage (F3) and a marginal glacial stage defined by small cirque glacier (F4) and extreme periglacial processes (rock glaciers, block slopes, block streams and stratified debris). Finally, the glacial stages have been correlated with known absolute dating of other massif of the Cantabrian Mountain.

RELIEF DEVELOPMENT OF THE BABIA GÓRA MASSIF, WESTERN CARPATHIAN MOUNTAINS

Abstract The paper discusses structural considerations relating to landform development on Mt. Babia Góra (1,725 m a.s.l.), the highest massif in the flysch section of the Western Carpathian Mountains. The Babia Góra massif consists of folded Palaeogene-age sediments, including resistant Magura sandstone and less resistant sub-Magura layers, with numerous tectonic faults. The area has inverse-type geomorphology. The monoclinal ridge of the massif itself consists of the resistant Magura sandstone dipping southwards. Since the Miocene, the development of the massif’s relief has involved a number of processes, including: tectonic uplifting, removal of a thick layer of rocks, exposure of sub-Magura layers over a large area, the staged development of valleys dissecting the pediments surrounding the ever higher ridge, and slope retreat due to deep landsliding. Axes of linear terrain forms, escarpments of landslide scars and of headwater areas follow two main intersecting fracture lines present within the massif. Large quantities of colluvial material are transported away from the massif along these lines. The development of the land relief has led to the elongation of slopes as local elevation differences increased. Landsliding has developed in an uphill direction, which means that the youngest relief is observed on the highest sections of steep slopes. The development of the massif’s northern slope, which has formed a high and precipitous cuesta, began to accelerate only after a nearly complete exposure of the sub-Magura layers at its foot. Following this exposure the profile of the massif’s N-S cross-section has begun to become asymmetrical. With time, the degree of general remodelling of the massif has tended to decrease. As a result, the geomorphological contrast between the northern and southern sides of the massif has become well established. The description of the probable development of the Babia Góra relief is based on the author’s fieldwork, an analysis of geological maps and aerial photos, and on literature.

The Nardo-Gnaphalietum supini plant association in the Western Carpathians (the Tatra Mts and the Babia Góra Massif)

&lt;p&gt;This article is the first published information on the occurrence of the snow-beds of Nardo-Gnaphalietum supini in the Western Carpathians. So far, localities of Nardo-Gnaphalietum supini phytocoenoses have been known exclusively from the Alps, the Black Forest, and the Eastern Carpathians. During this study, carried out in the Polish Carpathians, phytocoenoses of Nardo-Gnaphalietum were recorded in the two highest massifs - the Tatra Mountains and the Babia Góra Massif. They were closely related to anthropogenically-influenced sites with exposed and lumped ground located near tourist routes. Habitat characterization and spatial complexes of the patches of Nardo-Gnaphalietum in the investigated area are given herein.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Critical revision of phytosociological data from the Alps and the Eastern Carpathians revealed that the discussed phytocoenoses have been described within the communities of Luzuletum alpino-pilosae, Salicetum herbaceae or Nardetum strictae. In this study, all phytosociological data concerning the association were collected and the floristic distinction of the phytocoenoses of particular mountain massifs is discussed. A new subassociation Nardo-Gnaphalietum oligotrichetosum hercynici was distinguished on the basis of local habitat variability. Although Nardo-Gnaphalietum supini does not have characteristic species, it is a well-distinguished typological unit in the class Salicetea herbaceae Br.-Bl. 1948, and is a central association of the alliance Nardo-Salicion herbaceae Englisch 1999.&lt;/p&gt;

Endemic taxa of vascular plants in the Polish Carpathians

The Carpathians, particularly their highest massif, the Tatra Mountains, exhibit the greatest richness of endemics in Poland. The present paper is a critical recapitulation of existing knowledge of endemism among the vascular plants of the Polish part of the Carpathians. It comprises a list of all 110 taxa (49 species, 26 microspecies of the genus &lt;em&gt;Alchemilla &lt;/em&gt;and 35 conspicuous subspecies) that can be considered Carpathian endemics or subendemics. Their distribution, vertical ranges and habitats are characterized.

High genetic differentiation in the alpine plant Campanula alpina Jacq. (Campanulaceae): evidence for glacial survival in several Carpathian regions and long‐term isolation between the Carpathians and the Alps

A survey of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) and chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) variation was conducted to elucidate the phylogeography of Campanula alpina, a key species of silicicolous alpine grasslands in the Carpathians with a disjunct distribution in the Eastern European Alps. The Carpathians experienced a different glacial history from the Alps: local glaciers were present only in the highest massifs, while alpine habitats extended over larger areas related to their present distribution in this region. We asked: (i) whether in the Carpathians a high-mountain plant exhibits a complex phylogeographical structure or rather signatures of recent migrations, and (ii) whether the disjunct part of the species' distribution in the Alps resulted from a recent colonization from the Carpathians or from a restricted expansion from separate Eastern Alpine refugia. Our study revealed a clear phylogeographical pattern in AFLPs supported by congruent groups of distinct cpDNA haplotypes. Highest genetic differentiation was observed between the Alps and the Carpathians, indicating a long-term isolation between populations from these two mountain ranges. Further genetic division within the Carpathians suggests that current species' distribution is composed of several groups which have been isolated from each other for a long period. One genetic break separates Western from Southeastern Carpathian material, which is in line with a classical biogeographical boundary. A further, strongly supported genetic group was identified at the southwestern edge of the Carpathian arch. In the Eastern Alps, genetic traces of glacial survival in separate refugial areas in the calcareous northern part and the siliceous central part were found.

I finally tested a statin on myself!!

The only glaciers existing today in the Iberian Peninsula are small features located in the Pyrenees, though their number and extension has undergone significant changes over the Late Quaternary. The wide range of glacial landforms and deposits distributed across different Iberian ranges suggests the occurrence of several past periods with larger glacial systems. The objective of this research is to summarize the current knowledge on the spatial and temporal patterns of glacial activity in the Iberian mountains during the Late Quaternary. To this purpose, the chronological framework was divided in six periods: glaciations prior to the Last Glacial Cycle (Middle Pleistocene), Last Glacial Cycle (Late Pleistocene), Termination-1, Holocene, Little Ice Age (LIA) and present-day. The data were geographically divided considering the mountain systems where glacial evidence exists: Pyrenees, Cantabrian Range, NW ranges, Central Range, Iberian Range and Sierra Nevada. During Quaternary cold stages, ice accumulated in the head valleys of these mountain ranges and glaciers flowed down-valleys. In all cases, glaciers remained confined within the mountain systems and did not reach the surrounding lowlands. Depending on the combination of temperatures and moisture conditions, more or less ice was stored. In some ranges, there is evidence of Middle Pleistocene glaciations, one potentially correlating with marine isotope stage (MIS) 12 and another correlating with MIS 6 with glaciation dated to ca. 130-170 ka. However, most of the glacial records correspond to the Last Glacial Cycle and subsequent Termination. The maximum glacial expansion of this last Pleistocene glaciation stage occurred well before the global Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) between 30 and 60 ka in the Cantabrian Mountains and Pyrenees, at ca. 30 ka in Sierra Nevada and NW ranges, and (almost) synchronously to the LGM in the Central Range and Iberian Range. A massive glacial retreat occurred in all ranges at 19-20 ka, but the long-term deglaciation process was interrupted by cold intervals, such as the Oldest and Younger Dryas, which favoured glacial expansion in the highest mountains. Temperature increase recorded during the Holocene conditioned the melting of glaciers, which only reappeared in the highest massifs during the coldest periods, such as the LIA. However, post-LIA warming led to glacier disappearance in the Cantabrian Mountains, Sierra Nevada and most massifs of the Pyrenees, together with an accelerated shrinkage of the small glaciers still existing in this range at elevations near 3000 m.

Permafrost distribution in the Posets massif, Central Pyrenees

The Posets massif is located in the Central Pyrenees and reaches a height of 3363 m a.s.l. at the Posets peak, the second highest massif in the Pyrenees. Geomorphological maps of scales 1:25000 and 1:10000, BTS (bottom temperature of winter snow), ground measurements and snow poles were used to observe the more representative periglacial active landform association, ground thermal regime, the winter snow cover evolution and basal temperatures of snow. The main active periglacial landforms and processes related to the ground thermal regime and snow cover were studied. Mountain permafrost up to 2700 m a.s.l. on northexposed slopes and up to 2900 m a.s.l. on south-exposed slopes were detected. Three permafrost belts were differentiated: sporadic permafrost between 2700 and 2800 m a.s.l. and between 2850 and 3000 m a.s.l., discontinuous permafrost between 2800 and 2950 and between 2950 and 3050, and continuous permafrost up to 2900 m a.s.l. and up to 3050 m a.s.l. on northern and southern slopes, respectively.

Continental scale and orographic structures in the global distribution of the total ozone content

Abstract The phenomena associated with the continental effect in total ozone distribution first reported by Cuevas et al. (1995) has been further studied by a detailed graphical analysis of Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) data (version 7, NASA GSFC). This has reconfirmed, from the monthly mean global ozone images, the existence of the contours of some continents and peninsulas (e.g. Africa, Saudi Peninsula, Indian Peninsula) as well as high mountain chains and massifs (e.g. Andes, Rocky Mountains, Himalaya). It is doubtful that a significant decrease of the total ozone content over high mountains may be explained simply by a shorter atmospheric ozone column. The upward motions caused when horizontal winds meet an orthogonal orographic obstacle and\or the viscous dissipation of waves propagating from below are more preferable mechanisms to explain this effect.

Rome, Pamphylia and Cilicia, 133–70 B.C.

There has been much debate about the nature and purpose of the Roman intervention in Pamphylia between 102 and 70 B.C., to which a new edge has been given by the discovery of the extensive new fragments of the ‘Piracy Law’ of 101–100. Any solution needs a clear understanding of the strategic geography of the region and its political role within the kingdom of Pergamum that became the province of Asia. This fertile though narrow coastal plain, hemmed in by the western prolongation of the Taurus mountains, between the high massif of Cilicia Aspera in the east and the lower block of Lycia in the west, with the Pisidian chains to the north, is the coastal face of the isolated and difficult country of Pisidia. The deltas of the Pisidian rivers, notably Cestros and Eurymedon, enrich the narrow plain of Pamphylia. Practicable access to the interior for large forces dependant on wheeled transport for supplies is provided by three difficult routes leading through the Pisidian mountains from the coastal harbours: the first goes north-west from Attaleia past Termessus into and through the mountainous Milyas region that lies behind Lycia to Cibyra, and thence to Laodicea on the upper Maeander (Lycus) in Carian Asia. The second and easiest goes northwards from Attaleia to Sagalassus in the heart of Pisidia, and thence to Apamea on the Phrygian plateau—with a difficult branch north-east to Pisidian Antioch and Philomelium—and the third goes north and north-east from Side through the highest section of the Pisidian mountains, passing between the great Lake Caralis and the northern end of the High Taurus into the elevated plateau of Lycaonia: thence, from the communication centre of Iconium, there is easy access to Cappadocia by the central highway that links Apamea, Iconium and Mazaca. Pamphylia thus forms the southern gateway to Pergamene and Roman Asia, and to the Cappadocian kingdom behind the main chains of the Taurus. Hence it was of strategic interest to the Hellenistic kingdoms, which in the past had sought to control it and to found cities in it, and most notably after the Treaty of Apamea, to the kings of Pergamum.

The maximum extent of glaciers in part of West Falkland

Abstract Although it is known that cirque glaciers once existed in the Falkland Islands, it has remained in doubt whether or not the islands were ever covered by ice caps or an ice sheet during the Cainozoic. This paper scrutinizes geomorphological evigernce on the south-eastern flank of a high massif in West Falkland. It is suggested that, at the time of their maximum extent in the Cainozoic, the largest glaciers were no more than 2.7 km long.

The Maximum Extent of Glaciers in Part of West Falkland

AbstractAlthough it is known that cirque glaciers once existed in the Falkland Islands, it has remained in doubt whether or not the islands were ever covered by ice caps or an ice sheet during the Cainozoic. This paper scrutinizes geomorphological evigernce on the south-eastern flank of a high massif in West Falkland. It is suggested that, at the time of their maximum extent in the Cainozoic, the largest glaciers were no more than 2.7 km long.